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Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Pediatric
Amit Gupta MD
Staff Physician, Dept. of Family Medicine/Sleep Medicine
Advocate Aurora Medical Center, Oshkosh
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Disclosures
• No financial disclosures.
• I don’t own any copyrights to the images shown in the presentation, all the images shown are primarily from internet searches, which have been labelled for reuse; even for commercial purposes.
• Fair use doctrine has been adopted, section 107 of Copyright Act. The use of images are primarily for the purpose of learning and teaching.
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Definition
• Recurrent episodes of oxygen desaturation secondary to airflow limitation, which can be intermittent or sustained (characterized as obstructive hypoventilation); with preserved thoracic and abdominal efforts.
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Epidemiology
• Prevalence in children, 1-4%.
• May be higher because of obesity epidemic.
• Most common in preschool children [adenotonsillar hypertrophy] and Adolescents [obesity].
• Males = Females [children], Males > Females [Adolescents], African American > Caucasian [prevalence among other races unknown].
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Risk Factors
ADENOTONSILLAR HYPERTROPHY
OBESITY CRANIOFACIAL ANOMALIES
NEUROMUSCULAR DISORDERS
FAMILY HISTORY INFANTS WITH GERD
ENVIRONMENTAL SMOKE EXPOSURE
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Risk Factors continued…
Other disorders like Mucopolysacchroidosis,
Sickle Cell Disease.
Pharyngeal Flap operation for cleft
palate repair.
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Pathology
• Upper airway narrowing:
• Increased upper airway collapsibility, due to adenotonsillar hypertrophy, obesity, neuromuscular problems.
• Craniofacial anomalies leading to midfacial hypoplasia and retrognathia/micrognathia.
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Sources: Wikimedia: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Osa_cycle.gif, Vimeo: https://vimeo.com/214818010.
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Signs and Symptoms
Snoring or heavy breathing
Mouth breathing
Bedwetting
Restless sleep
Night sweats
Confusional arousals
Daytime hyperactivity/Aggressive behavior
Daytime Sleepiness
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Signs and Symptoms continued….
Adenotonsillar Hypertrophy
Developmental Delay
Paradoxical breathing
Craniofacial anomalies: Midfacial Hypoplasia, retrognathia
Pectus excavatum
Turbinate Hypertrophy, nasal polyps
Dolicocephaly, High arched palate
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Sources: Flickr.com; https://www.flickr.com/photos/126377022@N07/14592893450, https://www.flickr.com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/14597734707.
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ComplicationsNEUROBEHAVIORAL: AFFECTS
LATERAL PREFRONTAL CORTEX, LEADS TO IRRITABILITY AND
HYPERACTIVITY.
CARDIOVASCULAR: SYSTEMIC HYPERTENSION, PULMONARY
HYPERTENSION LEADING TO COR PULMONALE [RIGHT HEART
FAILURE]
GROWTH DELAY: HEIGHT AND WEIGHT AFFECTED THE MOST,
POOR FEEDING DUE TO ADENOTONSILLAR HYPERTROPHY OR CRANIOFACIAL ANOMALIES, SUPPRESSION OF SLOW WAVE
SLEEP MAY LEAD TO DECREASED GROWTH HORMONES RELEASE.
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DiagnosisPolysomnogram
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Objective Findings
Sleep Architecture: Generally preserved, children have very high cortical arousal threshold. Other findings like autonomic arousals or movements may be seen.
Respiratory: Obstructive Apnea Hypopnea Index > 1, may be graded as mild, moderate and severe based on AHI [ OAHI cut offs 1-4, 5-9, 10 or above].
CO2 monitoring: Hypoventilation, CO2 > 50 mm Hg for more than 25% of Total Sleep Time.
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ICSD Criteria:
• Criteria A & B must be met:
• Criteria A. Presence of one or more of the following:
• 1.snoring
• 2. Labored, paradoxical or obstructed breathing during child’s sleep.
• 3. Sleepiness, hyperactivity, behavioral problems or learning problems.
• Criteria B. PSG demonstrates one or both of the following:
• 1. OAHI > 1 OR
• 2. Obstructive Hypoventilation with one or more of the following: snoring, flattening of inspiratory nasal pressure curve or paradoxical thoracoabdominal motion.
• AASM guidelines give an option of using adult criteria for age groups 13 and above.
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Treatment
• First line therapy is Tonsillectomy and Adenoidectomy
• Medications
• PAP therapy
• Surgical techniques for craniofacial anomalies.
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Tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy
• Usually outpatient.
• Recovery time is 1-2 weeks.
• Sometimes patients can be admitted overnight for monitoring.
• Success rate: variable, mostly above 50%. Predictors of failure include high preoperative AHI, high Mallampati score, turbinate hypertrophy or deviated nasal septum.
• Adenoids can grow back rarely, due to its location, complete surgical removal might be difficult sometimes. In those cases anti-inflammatory medications can be tried, before pursuing repeat diagnostic studies.
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Criteria for overnight monitoring:
• Age younger than 3 years.
• Severe OSA, AHI > 10.
• Oxygen saturation nadir 80% or less.
• Complex medical history like craniofacial anomalies, pulmonary hypertension, hypotonia etc.
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Medications
• Leukotriene and other receptors present in a tonsillar or adenoid tissue. Leukotriene antagonist or inhaled nasal steroids reduce hypertrophy and may help mild OSA.
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PAP therapy
• Usually through titration studies.
• Auto PAP may not accurately treat OSA.
• Please follow AASM guidelines for PAP titration.
• Mostly used in severe OSA after failure of other therapies like T&A and anti-inflammatory medications.
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Other Surgical Techniques
• Rapid Maxillary Expansion:
• Used in OSA with maxillary contraction [high arched palate with unilateral or bilateral crossbites].
• Should be done before cartilage becomes bone, i.e. age 5-16 years.
• Orthodontic device anchored to two upper molars, which apply pressure to expand hard palate laterally and widen the nasal passages.
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Other surgical
techniques:
• Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingual_arch.
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Other surgical techniques…
• Distraction osteogenesis: Mechanical induction of new bone within two bony surfaces that are gradually distracted or separated.
• Saw is used to create osteotomies in the mandible, either a internal or external device is used to expand the mandible.
• Used in micrognathia like Treacher Collin’s syndrome, Pierre Robins Syndrome etc.
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Distraction Osteogenesis
Source: https://vimeo.com/30843938
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Some recent articles….
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Adenotonsillotomy Versus
Adenotonsillectomy in Pediatric
Obstructive Sleep Apnea: An RCT
Anna Borgström, Pia Nerfeldt, Danielle
Friberg.
• RCT to compare adenotonsillotomy [ATT] to adenotosillectomy [ATE]. 79 children, age 2-6 years were randomly assigned to each group. At the end of 1 year PSG and OSA-18 questionnaire were repeated. Both groups had similar outcomes without any statistical difference, 13% children in ATT group had recurrence of OSA and tonsillar regrowth.
• Major Drawbacks: Only non obese kids, age 2-6 years, shorter follow up [studies have shown tonsillar regrowth and OSA recurrence much later in life], power analysis: a difference in AHI changes of 5 between the groups was chosen to be clinically relevant, and this difference might be high.
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A Randomized Trial of
Adenotonsillectomy for Childhood
Sleep Apnea:Carole L. Marcus, Reneé
H. Moore, Carol L. Rosen, et al.
• 464 children age 5-9 years were randomly assigned to Adenotonsillectomy and watchful waiting group. Neuropsychological testing, PSG, behavior outcomes were tested at baseline and 7 months. No significant difference was observed in neuropsychological testing involving attention and executive function. However, statistically significant difference was seen in subjective outcomes as reported by the parents and PSG findings.
• Limitations: Excluded were; < 5 years of age, children who had prolonged oxyhemoglobin desaturation or who were taking medications for ADHD, the study results cannot be extrapolated to these vulnerable groups. Follow-up period was show, didn’t show full response to surgery.
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Hypoglossal Nerve Stimulator
Implantation in an Adolescent
With Down Syndrome and
Sleep Apnea. Diercks et al.
• 14 year old DS patient, severe OSA with AHI 48.5. Tracheotomy was done due to CPAP intolerance, hypoglossal nerve stimulator was implanted. 5 months after the implant tracheotomy was removed, residual AHI was 3.4.
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Bibliography
• 1. ICSD-3, AASM.
• 2.Review of Sleep Medicine, 4th edition, Dr. Avidan.
• 3. Fundamentals of Sleep Medicine, Dr. Berry.
• 4. UpToDate.
• 5. Case Book of Sleep Medicine, 2nd edition, AASM.
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Questions ???
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•Thank you.