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Nucleic Acid Structure and Organization
Asmarinah
Department of Medical Biology
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Nucleic acid
- Macromolecules consisting of a chain of nucleotides joined together by phosphodiester bonds
- divided into:
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) molecules
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DNA and its building
DNA is made from subunits, called nucleotides
Each nucleotide consisting of
-Sugar (deoxyribose)
-Phosphate
-Base: Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
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DNA - GeneA gene is defined as a segment of DNA that contains the insctruction for making a particular protein
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● DNA molecules are organized into chromosome
● Chromosome: A DNA molecule with its attendant proteins that moves as an independent units during mitosis and meiosis
Before DNA replication, each chromosome consists of a single DNA molecule plus protein, is called a chromatid
After replication, each chromosome consists of two identical DNA molecule plus proteins; this are called sister chromatids
● Chromatin: DNA plus the proteins that package it within the cell nucleus
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A B C
A. The principal structural features of chromosome
B. An electron micrograph of human mitotic chromosomes
C.A diagram of various classes of human chromosomes
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Chromatin packing occurs on several levels
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Structural organization of nucleosome
Nucleosome contains
Octameric histon protein & DNA double helix
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Genome
The totality of genetic information belonging to a cell or an organism; in particular, the DNA that carries this information
Genomics
The science of studying the DNA sequences and properties of entire genomes
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Each human chromosome has a unique banding pattern
Human Genome
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The Organization of human genome
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Conserved gene order in chromosome between the human (a) and mouse (b) genome
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Closely related species can have very different chromosome numbers
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Chromosomes from many eucaryotes (including human) contain a large excess of interspersed DNA that does not seem to carry critical information, called junk DNA
This DNA may not be important, but can play a role:
- as spacer material
- for long-term evolution of the species
- for the proper expression of genes
Bacteria and some single-celled eucaryotes have especially compact genomes. The complete nucleotide sequence of their genomes reveals that DNA molecules are little more than strings of closely packed genes
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Mitochondrial DNAMitochondrial DNA
Chromosome No. 25Chromosome No. 25 Genome Genome circular double circular double
stranded DNA stranded DNA Maternal inherited Mito DNA : 16.569 bp Mito DNA : 16.569 bp Nuclear DNA : 3 x 10Nuclear DNA : 3 x 1099 bp bp
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The structure of mitochondria
- contains two membranes:
* outer mitochondrial membrane
* inner mitochondrial membrane
-There is two aqueous compartment:
* Matrix, within the interior
* Intermembrane space, between
OMM and IMM
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produce ATPproduce ATP
5 respiration enzyme complexes5 respiration enzyme complexes
complex I (NADH oxydoreductase : Ubiquinone)complex I (NADH oxydoreductase : Ubiquinone)complex II (suksinat oxydoreductase : ubiquinone)complex II (suksinat oxydoreductase : ubiquinone)complex III (ubiquinol oxydoreductase : sitokrom c)complex III (ubiquinol oxydoreductase : sitokrom c)complex IV (Cytocrome c oxydase)complex IV (Cytocrome c oxydase)complex V (ATPsynthase). complex V (ATPsynthase).
Role of mitochondria
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The genome of E. coli
A. E.coli strain K-12 has 4.639.221 nucleotides pairs
B. A diagram of the E. coli genome.
E. Coli genome is circular that forms a single, closed loop.
Yellow or orange bars shows protein-coding genes
Green arrows indicate genes encoding only RNA molecules
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Genetic differences between pathogen and nonpathogen bacteria
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Example: Genetic organization of Vibrio cholerae
A. Vibrio cholerae has two circular chromosomes, that each of its has distinct origin of replication (oriC1 &
oriC2)
CTXφ locus carriers the gene for cholera toxin
VPI island contains gene for factors required for intestinal colonization
B. Map of CTXφ locus consist of: - core region: gene for cholera toxin ctxA & ctxB
gene for involving of virulence (ace & zot)
- repeated sequence RS2 & RS1 that involved
chromosomal insertion of bacteriophage genome
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Schematic drawings of several types of viral genomes
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RNA
Polymer formed from covalently linked ribonucleotide monomer
Type of RNA:
-mRNA = messenger RNA, code for protein
-rRNA = ribosomal RNA, form basic structure of ribosome and catalyze protein synthesis
-tRNA = tranfer RNA, central to protein synthesis as adaptors between mRNA and amino acids
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-snRNA = small nuclear RNA, function an variety of nuclear process
-snoRNA = small nucleolar RNA, used to process and chemically modify rRNA
-scaRNA = small cajal RNA, used to modify snoRNA and snRNA
-miRNA = microRNA, regulate gene expression typically by blocking translation of selective mRNA
-siRNA = small interfering RNA, turn off gene expression by directing degradation of selective mRNA and the establishment of compact chromatin structure
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mRNA
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References:
-Albert et al., 2008. Molecular biology of the cell. 5th ed.
-Albert et al., 2004. Essential of cell biology.
-Pollard and Earnshaw. 2004. Cell biology.