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AchartwithdescriptionsofeachMyersBriggspersonalitytypeandthefourdichotomiescentraltothetheory.

CarlJungin1910.IsabelBriggsMyersandKatharineCookBriggsextrapolatedtheirMBTItheoryfromJung'swritingsinhisbook,PsychologicalTypes

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TheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI)assessmentisapsychometricquestionnairedesignedtomeasurepsychologicalpreferencesinhowpeopleperceivetheworldandmakedecisions.[1][2][3]ThesepreferenceswereextrapolatedbyKatharineCookBriggsandIsabelBriggsMyersfromthetypologicaltheoriesproposedbyCarlGustavJung,andfirstpublishedinhis1921bookPsychologicalTypes(Englishedition,1923[4]).Jungtheorizedthattherearefourprincipalpsychologicalfunctionsbywhichweexperiencetheworld:sensation,intuition,feeling,andthinking.[5]Oneofthesefourfunctionsisdominantmostofthetime.

TheoriginaldevelopersofthepersonalityinventorywereKatharineCookBriggsandherdaughter,IsabelBriggsMyers.AfterextensivelystudyingtheworkofJung,theyturnedtheirinterestinhumanbehaviorintoadevotiontoturnthetheoryofpsychologicaltypestopracticaluse.[2][6]TheybegancreatingtheindicatorduringWorldWarIIinthe1940s[2]throughtheirownoriginalresearch,[2]withthebeliefthataknowledgeofpersonalitypreferenceswouldhelpwomenwhowereenteringtheindustrialworkforceforthefirsttimetoidentifythesortofwartimejobsthatwouldbe"mostcomfortableandeffective"[1]:xiiiforthem.TheinitialquestionnairegrewintotheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator,whichwasfirstpublishedin1962.TheMBTIisconstructedfornormalpopulationsandemphasizesthevalueofnaturallyoccurringdifferences.[7]RobertKaplanandDennisSaccuzzostatedthat"theunderlyingassumptionoftheMBTIisthatweallhavespecificpreferencesinthewayweconstrueourexperiences,andthesepreferencesunderlieourinterests,needs,values,andmotivation."[5]

Contents

1Concepts1.1Type1.2Fourdichotomies1.3Attitudes:extraversion/introversion(E/I)1.4Functions:sensing/intuition(S/N)andthinking/feeling(T/F)

1.4.1Dominantfunction



1.5Lifestyle:judging/perception(J/P)2Historicaldevelopment

2.1DifferencesfromJung2.1.1Judgingvs.perception

2.1.1.1Orientationofthetertiaryfunction

3Applications4Formatandadministration

4.1Additionalformats4.2Translationsintootherlanguages

5Preceptsandethics6Typedynamicsanddevelopment7Cognitivelearningstyles

7.1Extraversion/Introversion7.2Sensing/Intuition7.3Thinking/Feeling7.4Judging/Perceiving

8Correlationstootherinstruments8.1Keirseytemperaments8.2BigFive8.3Personalitydisorders

9Originsofthetheory10Criticism

10.1Terminology10.2Factoranalysis10.3Correlates10.4Reliability

11Utility12Seealso13Notes14Referencesandfurtherreading15Externallinks

Concepts



CarlJung

Subjective Objective

Perception iNtuition/Sensing Introversion1/Extraversion1

Judging Feeling/Thinking Introversion2/Extraversion2

MyersBriggs

Subjective Objective

Deductive iNtuition/Sensing Perception/Judging

AstheMBTIManualstates,theindicator"isdesignedtoimplementatheorythereforethetheorymustbeunderstoodtounderstandtheMBTI".[8]:1

FundamentaltotheMyersBriggsTypeIndicatoristhetheoryofpsychologicaltypeasoriginallydevelopedbyCarlJung.[1]:xiiiJungproposedtheexistenceoftwodichotomouspairsofcognitivefunctions:

The"rational"(judging)functions:thinkingandfeelingThe"irrational"(perceiving)functions:sensationandintuition

Jungbelievedthatforeverypersoneachofthefunctionsareexpressedprimarilyineitheranintrovertedorextravertedform.[1]:17FromJung'soriginalconcepts,BriggsandMyersdevelopedtheirowntheoryofpsychologicaltype,describedbelow,onwhichtheMBTIisbased.

Type

Jung'stypologicalmodelregardspsychologicaltypeassimilartoleftorrighthandedness:individualsareeitherbornwith,ordevelop,certainpreferredwaysofperceivinganddeciding.TheMBTIsortssomeofthesepsychologicaldifferencesintofouroppositepairs,ordichotomies,witharesulting16possiblepsychologicaltypes.Noneofthesetypesarebetterorworsehowever,BriggsandMyerstheorizedthatindividualsnaturallypreferoneoverallcombinationoftypedifferences.[1]:9Inthesamewaythatwritingwiththelefthandishardworkforarighthander,sopeopletendtofindusingtheiroppositepsychologicalpreferencesmoredifficult,eveniftheycanbecomemoreproficient(andthereforebehaviorallyflexible)withpracticeanddevelopment.

The16typesaretypicallyreferredtobyanabbreviationoffourletterstheinitiallettersofeachoftheirfourtypepreferences(exceptinthecaseofintuition,whichusestheabbreviationNtodistinguishitfromintroversion).Forinstance:

ESTJ:extraversion(E),sensing(S),thinking(T),judgment(J)INFP:introversion(I),intuition(N),feeling(F),perception(P)

Thismethodofabbreviationisappliedtoall16types.

Fourdichotomies

Thefourpairsofpreferencesordichotomiesareshowninthetabletotheright.

NotethatthetermsusedforeachdichotomyhavespecifictechnicalmeaningsrelatingtotheMBTIwhichdifferfromtheireverydayusage.Forexample,peoplewhopreferjudgmentoverperceptionarenotnecessarilymorejudgmentalorlessperceptive.NordoestheMBTIinstrumentmeasureaptitudeitsimplyindicatesforonepreferenceoveranother.[8]:3Someonereportingahigh



Inductive Feeling/Thinking Introversion/Extraversionscoreforextraversionoverintroversioncannotbecorrectlydescribedasmoreextraverted:theysimplyhaveaclearpreference.

Pointscoresoneachofthedichotomiescanvaryconsiderablyfrompersontoperson,evenamongthosewiththesametype.However,IsabelMyersconsideredthedirectionofthepreference(forexample,Evs.I)tobemoreimportantthanthedegreeofthepreference(forexample,veryclearvs.slight).[9]Theexpressionofaperson'spsychologicaltypeismorethanthesumofthefourindividualpreferences.Thepreferencesinteractthroughtypedynamicsandtypedevelopment.

Attitudes:extraversion/introversion(E/I)

MyersBriggsliteratureusesthetermsextraversionandintroversionasJungfirstusedthem.Extraversionmeans"outwardturning"andintroversionmeans"inwardturning".[10]Thesespecificdefinitionsvarysomewhatfromthepopularusageofthewords.NotethatextraversionisthespellingusedinMBTIpublications.

Thepreferencesforextraversionandintroversionareoftencalled"attitudes".BriggsandMyersrecognizedthateachofthecognitivefunctionscanoperateintheexternalworldofbehavior,action,people,andthings("extravertedattitude")ortheinternalworldofideasandreflection("introvertedattitude").TheMBTIassessmentsortsforanoverallpreferenceforoneortheother.

Peoplewhopreferextraversiondrawenergyfromaction:theytendtoact,thenreflect,thenactfurther.Iftheyareinactive,theirmotivationtendstodecline.Torebuildtheirenergy,extravertsneedbreaksfromtimespentinreflection.Conversely,thosewhopreferintroversion"expend"energythroughaction:theyprefertoreflect,thenact,thenreflectagain.Torebuildtheirenergy,introvertsneedquiettimealone,awayfromactivity.[11]

Theextravert'sflowisdirectedoutwardtowardpeopleandobjects,andtheintrovert'sisdirectedinwardtowardconceptsandideas.Contrastingcharacteristicsbetweenextravertsandintrovertsincludethefollowing:

Extravertsare"action"oriented,whileintrovertsare"thought"oriented.Extravertsseek"breadth"ofknowledgeandinfluence,whileintrovertsseek"depth"ofknowledgeandinfluence.Extravertsoftenprefermore"frequent"interaction,whileintrovertsprefermore"substantial"interaction.Extravertsrechargeandgettheirenergyfromspendingtimewithpeople,whileintrovertsrechargeandgettheirenergyfromspendingtimealonetheyconsumetheirenergythroughtheopposite

process.[12]

Functions:sensing/intuition(S/N)andthinking/feeling(T/F)

Jungidentifiedtwopairsofpsychologicalfunctions:



Thetwoperceivingfunctions,sensingandintuitionThetwojudgingfunctions,thinkingandfeeling

AccordingtoJung'stypologymodel,eachpersonusesoneofthesefourfunctionsmoredominantlyandproficientlythantheotherthreehowever,allfourfunctionsareusedatdifferenttimesdependingonthecircumstances.

Sensingandintuitionaretheinformationgathering(perceiving)functions.Theydescribehownewinformationisunderstoodandinterpreted.Individualswhoprefersensingaremorelikelytotrustinformationthatisinthepresent,tangible,andconcrete:thatis,informationthatcanbeunderstoodbythefivesenses.Theytendtodistrusthunches,whichseemtocome"outofnowhere".[1]:2Theyprefertolookfordetailsandfacts.Forthem,themeaningisinthedata.Ontheotherhand,thosewhopreferintuitiontendtotrustinformationthatislessdependentuponthesenses,thatcanbeassociatedwithotherinformation(eitherrememberedordiscoveredbyseekingawidercontextorpattern).Theymaybemoreinterestedinfuturepossibilities.Forthem,themeaningisintheunderlyingtheoryandprincipleswhicharemanifestedinthedata.

Thinkingandfeelingarethedecisionmaking(judging)functions.Thethinkingandfeelingfunctionsarebothusedtomakerationaldecisions,basedonthedatareceivedfromtheirinformationgatheringfunctions(sensingorintuition).Thosewhopreferthinkingtendtodecidethingsfromamoredetachedstandpoint,measuringthedecisionbywhatseemsreasonable,logical,causal,consistent,andmatchingagivensetofrules.Thosewhopreferfeelingtendtocometodecisionsbyassociatingorempathizingwiththesituation,lookingatit'fromtheinside'andweighingthesituationtoachieve,onbalance,thegreatestharmony,consensusandfit,consideringtheneedsofthepeopleinvolved.Thinkersusuallyhavetroubleinteractingwithpeoplewhoareinconsistentorillogical,andtendtogiveverydirectfeedbacktoothers.Theyareconcernedwiththetruthandviewitasmoreimportant.

Asnotedalready,peoplewhopreferthinkingdonotnecessarily,intheeverydaysense,"thinkbetter"thantheirfeelingcounterparts,inthecommonsensetheoppositepreferenceisconsideredanequallyrationalwayofcomingtodecisions(and,inanycase,theMBTIassessmentisameasureofpreference,notability).Similarly,thosewhopreferfeelingdonotnecessarilyhave"better"emotionalreactionsthantheirthinkingcounterparts.

Dominantfunction

AccordingtoJung,peopleuseallfourcognitivefunctions.However,onefunctionisgenerallyusedinamoreconsciousandconfidentway.Thisdominantfunctionissupportedbythesecondary(auxiliary)function,andtoalesserdegreethetertiaryfunction.Thefourthandleastconsciousfunctionisalwaystheoppositeofthedominantfunction.Myerscalledthisinferiorfunctiontheshadow.[1]:84

Thefourfunctionsoperateinconjunctionwiththeattitudes(extraversionandintroversion).Eachfunctionisusedineitheranextravertedorintrovertedway.Apersonwhosedominantfunctionisextravertedintuition,forexample,usesintuitionverydifferentlyfromsomeonewhosedominantfunctionisintrovertedintuition.

Lifestyle:judging/perception(J/P)



Adiagramdepictingthecognitivefunctionsofeachtype.Atype'sbackgroundcolorrepresentsitsDominantfunction,anditstextcolorrepresentsitsAuxiliaryfunction.

MyersandBriggsaddedanotherdimensiontoJung'stypologicalmodelbyidentifyingthatpeoplealsohaveapreferenceforusingeitherthejudgingfunction(thinkingorfeeling)ortheirperceivingfunction(sensingorintuition)whenrelatingtotheoutsideworld(extraversion).

MyersandBriggsheldthattypeswithapreferenceforjudgingshowtheworldtheirpreferredjudgingfunction(thinkingorfeeling).SoTJtypestendtoappeartotheworldaslogical,andFJtypesasempathetic.AccordingtoMyers,[1]:75judgingtypesliketo"havematterssettled".

Thosetypeswhopreferperceptionshowtheworldtheirpreferredperceivingfunction(sensingorintuition).SoSPtypestendtoappeartotheworldasconcreteandNPtypesasabstract.AccordingtoMyers,[1]:75perceptivetypespreferto"keepdecisionsopen".

Forextraverts,theJorPindicatestheirdominantfunctionforintroverts,theJorPindicatestheirauxiliaryfunction.Introvertstendtoshowtheirdominantfunctionoutwardlyonlyinmatters"importanttotheirinnerworlds".[1]:13Forexample:

BecausetheENTJtypeisextraverted,theJindicatesthatthedominantfunctionisthepreferredjudgingfunction(extravertedthinking).TheENTJtypeintrovertstheauxiliaryperceivingfunction(introvertedintuition).Thetertiaryfunctionissensingandtheinferiorfunctionisintrovertedfeeling.

BecausetheINTJtypeisintroverted,however,theJinsteadindicatesthattheauxiliaryfunctionisthepreferredjudgingfunction(extravertedthinking).TheINTJtypeintrovertsthedominantperceivingfunction(introvertedintuition).Thetertiaryfunctionisfeelingandtheinferiorfunctionisextravertedsensing.

Historicaldevelopment

KatharineCookBriggsbeganherresearchintopersonalityin1917.Uponmeetingherfuturesoninlaw,sheobservedmarkeddifferencesbetweenhispersonalityandthatofotherfamilymembers.Briggsembarkedonaprojectofreadingbiographies,andshedevelopedatypologybasedonpatternsshefound.Sheproposedfourtemperaments:Meditative(orThoughtful),Spontaneous,Executive,andSocial.[13][14]Then,aftertheEnglishtranslationofPsychologicalTypeswaspublishedin1923(havingfirstbeenpublishedinGermanin1921),sherecognizedthatJung'stheorywassimilarto,yetwentfarbeyond,herown.[1]:22Briggs'sfourtypeswerelateridentifiedascorrespondingtotheIs,EPs,ETJsandEFJs.[13][14]HerfirstpublicationsweretwoarticlesdescribingJung'stheory,inthejournalNewRepublicin1926(MeetYourselfUsingthePersonalityPaintBox)and1928(UpFromBarbarism).

Briggs'sdaughter,IsabelBriggsMyers,addedtohermother'stypologicalresearch,whichshewouldprogressivelytakeoverentirely.MyersgraduatedfirstinherclassfromSwarthmoreCollegein1919[1]:xxandwrotetheprizewinningmysterynovelMurderYettoComein1929usingtypologicalideas.However,neitherMyersnorBriggswereformallyeducatedinpsychology,andthustheylackedscientificcredentials



inthefieldofpsychometrictesting.[1]:xiiiSoMyersapprenticedherselftoEdwardN.Hay,whowasthenpersonnelmanagerforalargePhiladelphiabankandwentontostartoneofthefirstsuccessfulpersonnelconsultingfirmsintheU.S.FromHay,Myerslearnedtestconstruction,scoring,validation,andstatistics.[1]:xiii,xxIn1942,the"BriggsMyersTypeIndicator"wascreated,andtheBriggsMyersTypeIndicatorHandbookwaspublishedin1944.Theindicatorchangeditsnametothemodernform(MyersBriggsTypeIndicator)in1956.[15][16]

Myers'workattractedtheattentionofHenryChauncey,headoftheEducationalTestingService,andundertheseauspices,thefirstMBTIManualwaspublishedin1962.TheMBTIreceivedfurthersupportfromDonaldT.McKinnon,headoftheInstituteofPersonalityResearchattheUniversityofCaliforniaHaroldGrant,professoratMichiganStateandAuburnUniversitiesandMaryH.McCaulleyoftheUniversityofFlorida.ThepublicationoftheMBTIwastransferredtoConsultingPsychologistsPressin1975,andtheCenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType(CAPT)wasfoundedasaresearchlaboratory.[1]:xxiAfterMyers'deathinMay1980,MaryMcCaulleyupdatedtheMBTIManual,andthesecondeditionwaspublishedin1985.[9]Thethirdeditionappearedin1998.

DifferencesfromJung

Judgingvs.perception

ThemostnotableadditionofMyersandBriggstoJung'soriginalthoughtistheirconceptthatagiventype'sfourthletter(JorP)indicatesaperson'spreferredextravertedfunction,whichisthedominantfunctionforextravertedtypesandtheauxiliaryfunctionfortheintrovertedtypes.[1]:2122

Orientationofthetertiaryfunction

Jungtheorizedthatthedominantfunctionactsaloneinitspreferredworld:exteriorfortheextraverts,andinteriorfortheintroverts.Theremainingthreefunctions,hesuggested,operatetogetherintheoppositeworld.Ifthedominantcognitivefunctionisintroverted,theotherfunctionsareextraverted,andviceversa.TheMBTIManualsummarizesreferencesinJung'sworktothebalanceinpsychologicaltypeasfollows:

ThereareseveralreferencesinJung'swritingtothethreeremainingfunctionshavinganoppositeattitudinalcharacter.Forexample,inwritingaboutintrovertswiththinkingdominant...Jungcommentedthatthecounterbalancingfunctionshaveanextravertedcharacter.[9]:29

However,manyMBTIpractitionersholdthatthetertiaryfunctionisorientedinthesamedirectionsameasthedominantfunction.[17]UsingtheINTPtypeasanexample,theorientationwouldbeasfollows:

DominantintrovertedthinkingAuxiliaryextravertedintuitionTertiaryintrovertedsensingInferiorextravertedfeeling



Fromatheoreticalperspective,psychologistHansEysenckcalledtheMBTIamoderatelysuccessfulquantificationofJung'soriginalprinciplesasoutlinedinPsychologicalTypes.[18]

Eysenck,however,alsosaid:"This(theMBTI)creates16personalitytypeswhicharesaidtobesimilartoJung'stheoreticalconcepts.Ihavealwaysfounddifficultieswiththisidentification,whichomitsonehalfofJung'stheory(hehad32types,byassertingthatforeveryconsciouscombinationoftraitstherewasanoppositeunconsciousone).Obviouslythelatterhalfofhistheorydoesnotadmitofquestionnairemeasurement,buttoleaveitoutandpretendthatthescalesmeasureJungianconceptsishardlyfairtoJung."[19]

Bothmodelsremainhypotheses,withnocontrolledscientificstudiessupportingeitherJung'soriginalconceptoftypeortheMyersBriggsvariation.[20]

Applications

Theindicatorisfrequentlyusedintheareasofpedagogy,careercounseling,teambuilding,groupdynamics,professionaldevelopment,marketing,familybusiness,leadershiptraining,executivecoaching,lifecoaching,personaldevelopmentandmarriagecounseling.

Formatandadministration

ThecurrentNorthAmericanEnglishversionoftheMBTIStepIincludes93forcedchoicequestions(thereare88intheEuropeanEnglishversion).Forcedchoicemeansthattheindividualhastochooseonlyoneoftwopossibleanswerstoeachquestion.Thechoicesareamixtureofwordpairsandshortstatements.Choicesarenotliteraloppositesbutchosentoreflectoppositepreferencesonthesamedichotomy.Participantsmayskipquestionsiftheyfeeltheyareunabletochoose.

Usingpsychometrictechniques,suchasitemresponsetheory,theMBTIwillthenbescoredandwillattempttoidentifythepreference,andclarityofpreference,ineachdichotomy.AftertakingtheMBTI,participantsareusuallyaskedtocompleteaBestFitexercise(seebelow)andthengivenareadoutoftheirReportedType,whichwillusuallyincludeabargraphandnumbertoshowhowcleartheywereabouteachpreferencewhentheycompletedthequestionnaire.

DuringtheearlydevelopmentoftheMBTIthousandsofitemswereused.Mostwereeventuallydiscardedbecausetheydidnothavehighmidpointdiscrimination,meaningtheresultsofthatoneitemdidnot,onaverage,moveanindividualscoreawayfromthemidpoint.UsingonlyitemswithhighmidpointdiscriminationallowstheMBTItohavefeweritemsonitbutstillprovideasmuchstatisticalinformationasotherinstrumentswithmanymoreitemswithlowermidpointdiscrimination.TheMBTIrequiresfivepointsonewayoranothertoindicateaclearpreference.

Additionalformats

IsabelMyershadnotedthatpeopleofanygiventypeshareddifferencesaswellassimilarities.Atthetimeofherdeath,shewasdevelopingamoreindepthmethodofmeasuringhowpeopleexpressandexperiencetheirindividualtypepattern.



In1987,anadvancedscoringsystemwasdevelopedfortheMBTI.FromthiswasdevelopedtheTypeDifferentiationIndicator(TDI)(Saunders,1989)whichisascoringsystemforthelongerMBTI,FormJ,[21]whichincludesthe290itemswrittenbyMyersthathadsurvivedherpreviousitemanalyses.Ityields20subscales(fiveundereachofthefourdichotomouspreferencescales),plussevenadditionalsubscalesforanewComfortDiscomfortfactor(whichpurportedlycorrespondstothemissingfactorofNeuroticism).

Thisfactor'sscalesindicateasenseofoverallcomfortandconfidenceversusdiscomfortandanxiety.Theyalsoloadontooneofthefourtypedimensions:[22]guardedoptimistic(alsoT/F),defiantcompliant(alsoT/F),carefreeworried(alsoT/F),decisiveambivalent(alsoJ/P),intrepidinhibited(AlsoE/I),leaderfollower(AlsoE/I),andproactivedistractible(alsoJ/P)

Alsoincludedisacompositeofthesecalled"strain."Therearealsoscalesfortypescaleconsistencyandcomfortscaleconsistency.Reliabilityof23ofthe27TDIsubscalesisgreaterthan0.50,"anacceptableresultgiventhebrevityofthesubscales"(Saunders,1989).

In1989,ascoringsystemwasdevelopedforonlythe20subscalesfortheoriginalfourdichotomies.ThiswasinitiallyknownasFormK,ortheExpandedAnalysisReport(EAR).ThistoolisnowcalledtheMBTIStepII.

FormJortheTDIincludedtheitems(derivedfromMyersandMcCaulleysearlierwork)necessarytoscorewhatbecameknownasStepIII.[23](The1998MBTIManualreportedthatthetwoinstrumentswereoneandthesame[24])Itwasdevelopedinajointprojectinvolvingthefollowingorganizations:CPP,thepublisherofthewholefamilyofMBTIworksCAPT(CenterforApplicationsofPsychologicalType),whichholdsallofMyers'andMcCaulley'soriginalworkandtheMBTITrust,headedbyKatharineandPeterMyers.StepIIIwasadvertisedasaddressingtypedevelopmentandtheuseofperceptionandjudgmentbyrespondents.[25]

Translationsintootherlanguages

TheMBTIhasbeensuccessfullytranslatedintoover20languages,[26]coveringmanycountriesacrosstheworld.However,itismoretruetosaythatthecreationofanewquestionnairelanguageisadaptation,[27]whichincludestranslationtheotherstagesincludereviewsbysubjectmatterexpertsfluentinthenativelanguage,andstatisticalanalysistocheckthatthequestionsstillmeasurethesamepsychologicalconceptsastheoriginalUSEnglishquestionnaire.[28]

Preceptsandethics

ThefollowingpreceptsaregenerallyusedintheethicaladministrationoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator:

TypenottraitTheMBTIsortsfortypeitdoesnotindicatethestrengthofability.Thequestionnaireallowstheclarityofapreferencetobeascertained(Billclearlyprefersintroversion),butnotthestrengthofpreference(Janestronglyprefersextraversion)ordegreeofaptitude(Harryisgoodatthinking).Inthissense,itdiffersfromtraitbasedtoolssuchas16PF.Typepreferencesarepolaropposites:a



TheSixteenTypes

USPopulationBreakdown

preceptofMBTIisthatpeoplefundamentallypreferonethingovertheother,notabitofboth.

OwnbestjudgeIndividualsareconsideredthebestjudgeoftheirowntype.WhiletheMBTIquestionnaireprovidesaReportedType,thisisconsideredonlyanindicationoftheirprobableoverallType.ABestFitProcessisusuallyusedtoallowrespondentstodeveloptheirunderstandingofthefourdichotomies,toformtheirownhypothesisastotheiroverallType,andtocomparethisagainsttheReportedType.Inmorethan20%ofcases,thehypothesisandtheReportedTypedifferinoneormoredichotomies.Usingtheclarityofeachpreference,anypotentialforbiasinthereport,andoften,acomparisonoftwoormorewholeTypesmaythenhelprespondentsdeterminetheirownBestFit.

NorightorwrongNopreferenceortotaltypeisconsideredbetterorworsethananother.TheyareallGiftsDiffering,asemphasizedbythetitleofIsabelBriggsMyers'bookonthissubject.

VoluntaryItisconsideredunethicaltocompelanyonetotaketheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator.Itshould

alwaysbetakenvoluntarily.[29]

ConfidentialityTheresultoftheMBTIReportedandBestFittypeareconfidentialbetweentheindividualandadministratorand,ethically,notfordisclosurewithoutpermission.

NotforselectionTheresultsoftheassessmentshouldnotbeusedto"label,evaluate,orlimittherespondentinany

way"(emphasisoriginal).[29]Sincealltypesarevaluable,andtheMBTImeasurespreferencesratherthanaptitude,theMBTIisnotconsideredaproperinstrumentforpurposesofemploymentselection.Manyprofessionscontainhighlycompetentindividualsofdifferenttypeswithcomplementarypreferences.

ImportanceofproperfeedbackIndividualsshouldalwaysbegivendetailedfeedbackfromatrainedadministratorandanopportunitytoundertakeaBestFitexercisetocheckagainsttheirReportedType.Thisfeedbackcanbegiveninpersonor,wherethisisnotpractical,bytelephoneorelectronically.

Typedynamicsanddevelopment

Theinteractionoftwo,three,orfourpreferencesisknownastypedynamics.Althoughtypedynamicshasreceivedlittleornoempiricalsupporttosubstantiateitsviabilityasascientifictheory,[31]MyersandBriggsassertedthatforeachofthe16fourpreferencetypes,onefunctionisthemostdominant



ThetableorganizingthesixteentypeswascreatedbyIsabelMyers(anINFP

person).

ISTJ11

14%

ISFJ9

14%

INFJ13%

INTJ24%

ISTP46%

ISFP59%

INFP45%

INTP35%

ESTP45%

ESFP49%

ENFP68%

ENTP25%

ESTJ812%

ESFJ9

13%

ENFJ25%

ENTJ25%

Estimatedpercentagesofthe16

typesintheU.S.population.[30]

andislikelytobeevidentearliestinlife.Asecondaryorauxiliaryfunctiontypicallybecomesmoreevident(differentiated)duringteenageyearsandprovidesbalancetothedominant.Innormaldevelopment,individualstendtobecomemorefluentwithathird,tertiaryfunctionduringmidlife,whilethefourth,inferiorfunctionremainsleastconsciouslydeveloped.Theinferiorfunctionisoftenconsideredtobemoreassociatedwiththeunconscious,beingmostevidentinsituationssuchashighstress(sometimesreferredtoasbeinginthegripoftheinferiorfunction).

Howevertheuseoftypedynamicsisdisputed:intheconclusionofvariousstudiesonthesubjectoftypedynamics,JamesH.Reyniersewritesthat"Typedynamicshaspersistentlogicalproblemsandisfundamentallybasedonaseriesofcategorymistakesitprovides,atbest,alimitedandincompleteaccountoftyperelatedphenomena"andthat"typedynamicsreliesonanecdotalevidence,failsmostefficacytests,anddoesnotfittheempiricalfacts".Hisstudiesgavetheclearresultthatthedescriptionsandworkingsoftypedynamicsdonotfittherealbehaviorofpeople.Hesuggestsgettingcompletelyridoftypedynamics,becauseitdoesnothelpbuthindersunderstandingofpersonality.Thepresumedorderoffunctions1to4didonlyoccurinoneoutof540testresults.[32]

Thesequenceofdifferentiationofdominant,auxiliary,andtertiaryfunctionsthroughlifeistermedtypedevelopment.Notethatthisisanidealizedsequencethatmaybedisruptedbymajorlifeevents.

Thedynamicsequenceoffunctionsandtheirattitudescanbedeterminedinthefollowingway:

Theoveralllifestylepreference(JP)determineswhetherthejudging(TF)orperceiving(SN)preferenceismostevidentintheoutsideworldi.e.,whichfunctionhasanextravertedattitudeTheattitudepreference(EI)determineswhethertheextravertedfunctionisdominantorauxiliaryForthosewithanoverallpreferenceforextraversion,thefunctionwiththeextravertedattitudewillbethedominantfunction.Forexample,foranESTJtypethedominantfunctionisthejudgingfunction,thinking,andthisisexperiencedwithanextravertedattitude.ThisisnotatedasadominantTe.ForanESTP,thedominantfunctionistheperceivingfunction,sensing,notatedasadominantSe.TheAuxiliaryfunctionforextravertsisthesecondarypreferenceofthejudgingorperceivingfunctions,anditisexperiencedwithanintrovertedattitude:forexample,theauxiliaryfunctionforESTJisintrovertedsensing(Si)andtheauxiliaryforESTPisintrovertedthinking(Ti).Forthosewithanoverallpreferenceforintroversion,thefunctionwiththeextravertedattitudeistheauxiliarythedominantistheotherfunctioninthemainfourletterpreference.SothedominantfunctionforISTJisintrovertedsensing(Si)withtheauxiliary(supporting)functionbeingextravertedthinking(Te).TheTertiaryfunctionistheoppositepreferencefromtheAuxiliary.Forexample,iftheAuxiliaryisthinkingthentheTertiarywouldbefeeling.TheattitudeoftheTertiaryisthesubjectofsomedebateandthereforeisnotnormallyindicatedi.e.iftheAuxiliarywasTethentheTertiarywouldbeF(not



FeorFi)TheInferiorfunctionistheoppositepreferenceandattitudefromtheDominant,soforanESTJwithdominantTetheInferiorwouldbeFi.

Notethatforextraverts,thedominantfunctionistheonemostevidentintheexternalworld.Forintroverts,however,itistheauxiliaryfunctionthatismostevidentexternally,astheirdominantfunctionrelatestotheinteriorworld.

Someexamplesofwholetypesmayclarifythisfurther.TakingtheESTJexampleabove:

Extravertedfunctionisajudgingfunction(TF)becauseoftheoverallJpreferenceExtravertedfunctionisdominantbecauseofoverallEpreferenceDominantfunctionisthereforeextravertedthinking(Te)Auxiliaryfunctionisthepreferredperceivingfunction:introvertedsensing(Si)TertiaryfunctionistheoppositeoftheAuxiliary:intuition(N)InferiorfunctionistheoppositeoftheDominant:introvertedfeeling(Fi)

ThedynamicsoftheESTJarefoundintheprimarycombinationofextravertedthinkingastheirdominantfunctionandintrovertedsensingastheirauxiliaryfunction:thedominanttendencyofESTJstoordertheirenvironment,tosetclearboundaries,toclarifyrolesandtimetables,andtodirecttheactivitiesaroundthemissupportedbytheirfacilityforusingpastexperienceinanorderedandsystematicwaytohelporganizethemselvesandothers.Forinstance,ESTJsmayenjoyplanningtripsforgroupsofpeopletoachievesomegoalortoperformsomeculturallyupliftingfunction.Becauseoftheireaseindirectingothersandtheirfacilityinmanagingtheirowntime,theyengagealltheresourcesattheirdisposaltoachievetheirgoals.However,underprolongedstressorsuddentrauma,ESTJsmayoverusetheirextravertedthinkingfunctionandfallintothegripoftheirinferiorfunction,introvertedfeeling.AlthoughtheESTJcanseeminsensitivetothefeelingsofothersintheirnormalactivities,undertremendousstress,theycansuddenlyexpressfeelingsofbeingunappreciatedorwoundedbyinsensitivity.

Lookingatthediametricallyoppositefourlettertype,INFP:

Extravertedfunctionisaperceivingfunction(SN)becauseofthePpreferenceIntrovertedfunctionisdominantbecauseoftheIpreferenceDominantfunctionisthereforeintrovertedfeeling(Fi)Auxiliaryfunctionisextravertedintuition(Ne)TertiaryfunctionistheoppositeoftheAuxiliary:sensing(S)InferiorfunctionistheoppositeoftheDominant:extravertedthinking(Te)

ThedynamicsoftheINFPrestonthefundamentalcorrespondenceofintrovertedfeelingandextravertedintuition.ThedominanttendencyoftheINFPistowardbuildingarichinternalframeworkofvaluesandtowardchampioninghumanrights.Theyoftendevotethemselvesbehindthescenestocausessuchascivilrightsorsavingtheenvironment.Sincetheytendtoavoidthelimelight,postponedecisions,andmaintainareservedposture,theyarerarelyfoundinexecutivedirectortypepositionsoftheorganizationsthatserve



thosecauses.Normally,theINFPdislikesbeing"incharge"ofthings.Whennotunderstress,theINFPradiatesapleasantandsympatheticdemeanorbutunderextremestress,theycansuddenlybecomerigidanddirective,exertingtheirextravertedthinkingerratically.

Everytype,anditsopposite,istheexpressionoftheseinteractions,whichgiveeachtypeitsunique,recognizablesignature.

Cognitivelearningstyles

Thetestisscoredbyevaluatingeachanswerintermsofwhatitrevealsaboutthetaker.Eachquestionisrelevanttooneofthefollowingcognitivelearningstyles.Eachisnotapolaropposite,butagradualcontinuum.

Extraversion/Introversion

Thefirstcontinuumreflectswhatgenerallyenergizesaperson.Extravertedtypeslearnbestbytalkingandinteractingwithothers.Byinteractingwiththephysicalworld,extravertscanprocessandmakesenseofnewinformation.Introvertedtypespreferquietreflectionandprivacy.Informationprocessingoccursforintrovertsastheyexploreideasandconceptsinternally.

Sensing/Intuition

Thesecondcontinuumreflectswhatapersonfocusestheirattentionson.Sensingtypesenjoyalearningenvironmentinwhichthematerialispresentedinadetailedandsequentialmanner.Sensingtypesoftenattendtowhatisoccurringinthepresent,andcanmovetotheabstractaftertheyhaveestablishedaconcreteexperience.Intuitivetypespreferalearningatmosphereinwhichanemphasisisplacedonmeaningandassociations.Insightisvaluedhigherthancarefulobservation,andpatternrecognitionoccursnaturallyforIntuitivetypes.

Thinking/Feeling

Thethirdcontinuumreflectsthepersonsdecisionpreferences.Thinkingtypesdesireobjectivetruthandlogicalprinciplesandarenaturalatdeductivereasoning.Feelingtypesplaceanemphasisonissuesandcausesthatcanbepersonalizedwhiletheyconsiderotherpeople'smotives.

Judging/Perceiving

Thefourthcontinuumreflectshowthepersonregardscomplexity.Judgingtypeswillthrivewheninformationisorganizedandstructured,andtheywillbemotivatedtocompleteassignmentsinordertogainclosure.Perceivingtypeswillflourishinaflexiblelearningenvironmentinwhichtheyarestimulatedbynewandexcitingideas.Judgingtypesliketobeontime,whileperceivingtypesmaybelateand/orprocrastinate.

Correlationstootherinstruments

Keirseytemperaments



DavidW.Keirseymappedfour"temperaments"totheexistingMyersBriggssystemgroupings:SP,SJ,NFandNTthisoftenresultsinconfusionofthetwotheories.However,theKeirseyTemperamentSorterisnotdirectlyassociatedwiththeofficialMyersBriggsTypeIndicator.

ISITEJ ISIFEJ INIFEJ INITEJInspector Protector Counselor MastermindISETIP ISEFIP INEFIP INETIPCrafter Composer Healer ArchitectESETIP ESEFIP ENEFIP ENETIPPromoter Performer Champion InventorESITEJ ESIFEJ ENIFEJ ENITEJ

Supervisor Provider Teacher Fieldmarshal

BigFive

McCraeandCosta[33][34]presentcorrelationsbetweentheMBTIscalesandtheBigFivepersonalityconstruct,whichaimstoorganizethecompletesetofbasicpersonalitydomains.Thefivepersonalitycharacteristicsareextraversion,openness,agreeableness,conscientiousness,andemotionalstability(orneuroticism).Thefollowingstudyisbasedontheresultsfrom267menfollowedaspartofalongitudinalstudyofaging.(Similarresultswereobtainedwith201women.)

Extraversion Openness Agreeableness Conscientiousness NeuroticismEI 0.74 0.03 0.03 0.08 0.16SN 0.10 0.72 0.04 0.15 0.06TF 0.19 0.02 0.44 0.15 0.06JP 0.15 0.30 0.06 0.49 0.11Thecloserthenumberisto1.0or1.0,thehigherthedegreeofcorrelation.

ThesedatasuggestthatthefourMBTIscalesaresubsumedwithintheBigFivepersonalitytraits,butthattheMBTIlacksameasureforemotionalstabilitydimensionoftheBigFive(thoughtheTDI,discussedabove,hasaddressedthatdimension).Emotionalstability(orneuroticism)isacoredomainpredictiveofdepressionandanxietydisorders.Thesecorrelationsrefertothesecondlettershown,i.e.thetableshowsthatIandPhavenegativecorrelationtoextraversionandconscientiousnessrespectively,whileFandNhavepositivecorrelationtoagreeablenessandopennessrespectively.

ThesefindingsledMcCraeandCosta,theformulatorsoftheFiveFactorModel(aBigFivetheory),[35]toconclude,"correlationalanalysesshowedthatthefourMBTIindicesdidmeasureaspectsoffourofthefivemajordimensionsofnormalpersonality.ThefivefactormodelprovidesanalternativebasisforinterpretingMBTIfindingswithinabroader,morecommonlysharedconceptualframework."However,"therewasnosupportfortheviewthattheMBTImeasurestrulydichotomouspreferencesorqualitativelydistincttypes,instead,theinstrumentmeasuresfourrelativelyindependentdimensions."

Personalitydisorders



OnestudyfoundpersonalitydisordersasdescribedbytheDSMoveralltocorrelatemodestlywithI,N,T,andP,thoughtheassociationsvariedsignificantlybydisorder.TheonlytwodisorderswithsignificantcorrelationsofallfourMBTIdimensionswereschizotypal(INTP)andobsessivecompulsivepersonalitydisorder(ISTJ).[36]

Originsofthetheory

Jung'stheoryofpsychologicaltype,aspublishedinhis1921book,wasnottestedthroughcontrolledscientificstudies.[20]Jung'smethodsprimarilyincludedclinicalobservation,introspectionandanecdotemethodsthatarelargelyregardedasinconclusivebythemodernfieldofpsychology.[20]

Jung'stypetheoryintroducedasequenceoffourcognitivefunctions(thinking,feeling,sensation,andintuition),eachhavingoneoftwoorientations(extraversionorintroversion),foratotalofeightdominantfunctions.TheMyersBriggstheoryisbasedontheseeightfunctions,althoughwithsomedifferencesinexpression(seeDifferencesfromJungabove).However,neithertheMyersBriggsnortheJungianmodelsofferanyscientific,experimentalprooftosupporttheexistence,thesequence,theorientation,orthemanifestationofthesefunctions.[20]

Criticism

ThestatisticalvalidityoftheMBTIasapsychometricinstrumenthasbeenthesubjectofcriticism.IthasbeenestimatedthatbetweenathirdandahalfofthepublishedmaterialontheMBTIhasbeenproducedforconferencesoftheCenterfortheApplicationofPsychologicalType(whichprovidestrainingintheMBTI)oraspapersintheJournalofPsychologicalType(whichiseditedbyMyersBriggsadvocates).[37]Ithasbeenarguedthatthisreflectsalackofcriticalscrutiny.[37][38]ManyofthestudiesthatendorseMBTIaremethodologicallyweak.[38][39]A1996reviewbyGardnerandMartinkoconcluded:"Itisclearthateffortstodetectsimplisticlinkagesbetweentypepreferencesandmanagerialeffectivenesshavebeendisappointing.Indeed,giventhemixedqualityofresearchandtheinconsistentfindings,nodefinitiveconclusionregardingtheserelationshipscanbedrawn."[38][39]

Forexample,someresearchersexpectedthatscoreswouldshowabimodaldistributionwithpeaksneartheendsofthescales,butfoundthatscoresontheindividualsubscaleswereactuallydistributedinacentrallypeakedmannersimilartoanormaldistribution.Acutoffexistsatthecenterofthesubscalesuchthatascoreononesideisclassifiedasonetype,andascoreontheothersideastheoppositetype.Thisfailstosupporttheconceptoftype:thenormisforpeopletolienearthemiddleofthesubscale.[33][38][40][41][42]"AlthoughwedonotconcludethattheabsenceofbimodalitynecessarilyprovesthattheMBTIdeveloperstheorybasedassumptionofcategoricaltypesofpersonalityisinvalid,theabsenceofempiricalbimodalityinIRTbasedMBTIscoresdoesindeedremoveapotentiallypowerfullineofevidencethatwaspreviouslyavailabletotypeadvocatestociteindefenseoftheirposition."[42]

In1991,theNationalAcademyofSciencescommitteerevieweddatafromMBTIresearchstudiesandconcludedthatonlytheIEscalehashighcorrelationswithcomparablescalesofotherinstrumentsandlowcorrelationswithinstrumentsdesignedtoassessdifferentconcepts,showingstrongvalidity.Incontrast,theSNandTFscalesshowrelativelyweakvalidity.The1991reviewcommitteeconcludedatthetimetherewas"notsufficient,welldesignedresearchtojustifytheuseoftheMBTIincareercounseling



programs".[43]Thisstudybaseditsmeasurementofvalidityon"criterionrelatedvalidity(i.e.,doestheMBTIpredictspecificoutcomesrelatedtointerpersonalrelationsorcareersuccess/jobperformance?)."[43]Studieshavefoundthatthereisinsufficientevidencetomakeclaimsaboututility,particularlyofthefourlettertypegivenafterthetest.[38]

TheaccuracyoftheMBTIdependsonhonestselfreportingbythepersontested.[8]:5253Unlikesomepersonalitymeasures,suchastheMinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventoryorthePersonalityAssessmentInventory,theMBTIdoesnotusevalidityscalestoassessexaggeratedorsociallydesirableresponses.[44]Asaresult,individualsmotivatedtodosocanfaketheirresponses,[45]andonestudyfoundthattheMBTIjudgment/perceptiondimensioncorrelatesweaklywiththeEysenckPersonalityQuestionnaireliescale.[46]Ifrespondents"feartheyhavesomethingtolose,theymayanswerastheyassumetheyshould."[8]:53However,theMBTIethicalguidelinesstate,"ItisunethicalandinmanycasesillegaltorequirejobapplicantstotaketheIndicatoriftheresultswillbeusedtoscreenoutapplicants."[29]TheintentoftheMBTIistoprovide"aframeworkforunderstandingindividualdifferences,andadynamicmodelofindividualdevelopment".[47]

Terminology

TheterminologyoftheMBTIhasbeencriticizedasbeingvery"vagueandgeneral",[48]soastoallowanykindofbehaviortofitanypersonalitytype,whichmayresultintheForereffect,whereindividualsgiveahighratingtoapositivedescriptionthatsupposedlyappliesspecificallytothem.[20][38]OthersarguethatwhiletheMBTItypedescriptionsarebrief,theyarealsodistinctiveandprecise.[49]:1415Sometheorists,suchasDavidKeirsey,haveexpandedontheMBTIdescriptions,providingevengreaterdetail.Forinstance,Keirsey'sdescriptionsofhisfourtemperaments,whichhecorrelatedwiththesixteenMBTIpersonalitytypes,showhowthetemperamentsdifferintermsoflanguageuse,intellectualorientation,educationalandvocationalinterests,socialorientation,selfimage,personalvalues,socialroles,andcharacteristichandgestures.[49]:32207

Factoranalysis

Withregardtofactoranalysis,onestudyof1291collegeagedstudentsfoundsixdifferentfactorsinsteadofthefourusedintheMBTI.[50]Inotherstudies,researchersfoundthattheJPandtheSNscalescorrelatewithoneanother.[33]

Correlates

AccordingtoHansEysenck:"ThemaindimensionintheMBTIiscalledEI,orextraversionintroversionthisismostlyasociabilityscale,correlatingquitewellwiththeMMPIsocialintroversionscale(negatively)andtheEysenckExtraversionscale(positively)(EysenckandEysenck,1985).Unfortunately,thescalealsohasaloadingonneuroticism,whichcorrelateswiththeintrovertedend.Thusintroversioncorrelatesroughly(i.e.averagingvaluesformalesandfemales).44withdominance,.24withaggression,+.37withabasement,+.46withcounsellingreadiness,.52withselfconfidence,.36withpersonaladjustment,and



.45withempathy.ThefailureofthescaletodisentangleIntroversionandNeuroticism(infactthereisnoscaleforneuroticandotherpsychopathologicalattributesintheMBTI)isitsworstfeature,onlyequalledbythefailuretousefactoranalysisinordertotestthearrangementofitemsinthescale."[18]

Reliability

Someresearchershaveinterpretedthereliabilityofthetestasbeinglow,particularlywithregardstothetestretestreliabilityofthetest.Studieshavefoundthatbetween39%and76%ofthosetestedfallintodifferenttypesuponretestingsomeweeksoryearslater,[38][41]andlargenumbersofindividualshavefoundthattheygetdifferentclassificationswhenretakingthetestafterjustfiveweeks.Thereisalsostrongevidencethatthedifferentscalesarecorrelated,andnotindependentasclaimed.[38]InFortuneMagazineonMay15,2013,anarticleonthetest,entitled"HaveweallbeendupedbytheMyersBriggsTest",saidthat:

"TheinterestingandsomewhatalarmingfactabouttheMBTIisthat,despiteitspopularity,ithasbeensubjecttosustainedcriticismbyprofessionalpsychologistsforoverthreedecades.Oneproblemisthatitdisplayswhatstatisticianscalllow"testretestreliability."Soifyouretakethetestafteronlyafiveweekgap,there'sarounda50%chancethatyouwillfallintoadifferentpersonalitycategorycomparedtothefirsttimeyoutookthetest."

Theconsequenceisthatthescoresoftwopeoplelabelled"introvert"and"extravert"maybealmostexactlythesame,buttheycouldbeplacedintodifferentcategoriessincetheyfalloneithersideofanimaginarydividingline.[51]

OnestudyreportsthattheMBTIdichotomiesexhibitgoodsplithalfreliabilityhowever,thedichotomyscoresaredistributedinabellcurve,andtheoveralltypeallocationsarelessreliable.Also,testretestreliabilityissensitivetothetimebetweentests.Withineachdichotomyscale,asmeasuredonFormG,about83%ofcategorizationsremainthesamewhenindividualsareretestedwithinninemonths,andaround75%whenindividualsareretestedafterninemonths.About50%ofpeopletestedwithinninemonthsremainthesameoveralltype,and36%remainthesametypeaftermorethanninemonths.[52]ForFormM(themostcurrentformoftheMBTIinstrument),theMBTIManualreportsthatthesescoresarehigher(p.163,Table8.6).

Inonestudy,whenpeoplewereaskedtocomparetheirpreferredtypetothatassignedbytheMBTIassessment,onlyhalfofpeoplepickedthesameprofile.[53]CriticsalsoarguethattheMBTIlacksfalsifiability,whichcancauseconfirmationbiasintheinterpretationofresults.

AnumberofscholarsarguethatcriticismsregardingtheMBTImostlycomedowntoquestionsregardingthevalidityofitsorigins,notquestionsregardingthevalidityoftheMBTI'susefulness.[54]OthersarguethattheMBTIcanbeareliablemeasurementofpersonalityitjustsohappensthat"likeallmeasures,theMBTIyieldsscoresthataredependentonsamplecharacteristicsandtestingconditions".[55]

Utility



Inherresearch,IsabelMyersfoundthattheproportionofdifferentpersonalitytypesvariedbychoiceofcareerorcourseofstudy.[1]:4051[9]However,someresearchersexaminingtheproportionsofeachtypewithinvaryingprofessionsreportthattheproportionofMBTItypeswithineachoccupationisclosetothatwithinarandomsampleofthepopulation.[38]Someresearchershaveexpressedreservationsabouttherelevanceoftypetojobsatisfaction,aswellasconcernsaboutthepotentialmisuseoftheinstrumentinlabelingindividuals.[38][56]

CPPbecametheexclusivepublisheroftheMyersBriggsinstrumentin1975.Theycallit"theworld'smostwidelyusedpersonalityassessment",withasmanyastwomillionassessmentsadministeredannually.[57]CPPandotherproponentsstatethattheindicatormeetsorexceedsthereliabilityofotherpsychologicalinstrumentsandcitereportsofindividualbehavior.[58][59][60]

Somestudieshavefoundstrongsupportforconstructvalidity,internalconsistency,andtestretestreliability,althoughvariationwasobserved.[61][62]However,someacademicpsychologistshavecriticizedtheMBTIinstrument,claimingthatit"lacksconvincingvaliditydata",[33][40][41][63]whilesomestudieshaveshownthestatisticalvalidityandreliabilitytobelow.[38][41][64]

StudiessuggestthattheMBTIisnotausefulpredictorofjobperformance.[38][43][65]AsnotedaboveunderPreceptsandethics,theMBTImeasurespreference,notability.TheuseoftheMBTIasapredictorofjobsuccessisexpresslydiscouragedintheManual.[8]:78However,theMBTIcontinuestobepopularbecausemanypeoplearequalifiedtoadministerit,itisnotdifficulttounderstand,andtherearemanysupportingbooks,websitesandotherusefulsourceswhicharereadilyavailabletothegeneralpublic.[66]

Seealso

AdjectiveCheckList(ACL)BirkmanMethodCPI260DISCassessmentEnneagramofPersonalityRisoHudsonEnneagramTypeIndicatorFIROBForereffectFortProfileHollandCodesHumorismInteractionStylesInterpersonalcompatibilityKingdomalityListofpersonalitytests



Notes

MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)PearsonMarrArchetypeIndicator(PMAI)PersonalityAssessmentSystemPersonalityclashPersonalitypsychologyRevisedNEOPersonalityInventorySocionicsStrongInterestInventoryThomasKilmannConflictModeInstrument

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PrometheusNemesisBookCompany.ISBN1885705026.50. Sipps,G.J.,R.A.Alexander,andL.Friedt."ItemAnalysisoftheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator."Educational

andPsychologicalMeasurement,Vol.45,No.4(1985),pp.789796.51. "HaveweallbeendupedbytheMyersBriggstest?Fortune"

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Referencesandfurtherreading

Hunsley,J.Lee,C.M.andWood,J.M.(2004).Controversialandquestionableassessmenttechniques.ScienceandPseudoscienceinClinicalPsychology,LilienfeldSO,LohrJM,LynnSJ(eds.).Guilford,ISBN1593850700

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