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Mountain Meteorology
Glacier Travel
Mountain Hazards
Olympia Mountaineers
Basic Climbing Course
2015
Lecturer: Jeff Foster
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Mountain Meteorology
Meteorology – the study of the atmosphere
and the processes that produce climate
and weather
Climate - the generally prevailing weather of
a region over a long period of time
Weather - the state of the atmosphere in
terms of temperature, humidity, wind, air
pressure, cloudiness, etc.
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Mountain Meteorology
Washington’s Climate
Western Washington = humid maritime
cool, wet winters; warm, dry summers
Influenced by proximity of Pacific Ocean
(high heat storage of water)
Eastern Washington= semiarid continental
cold, dry winters; hot, dry summers
No oceanic influence
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Mountain Meteorology
Washington
temperature
patterns
Washington’s Climate
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Mountain Meterology
Washington precipitation patterns
Washington’s Climate
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Mountain Meteorology
Washington precipitation patterns
Washington’s Climate
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Mountain Meteorology
Location
Average annual
snowfall (inches)
Seattle 5
Paradise 671
Yakima 121
Washington’s Climate
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Mountain Meteorology
Temperature lapse rate
Decrease in temperature with elevation in the lowest
layer of the atmosphere
Occurs faster in drier air, slower in moist air
Water has a high specific heat – the amount of heat
required to raise a unit mass by a specific temperature
Water vapor slow to give up or gain heat relative to air
So a moist air mass cools slower than a dry air mass as
it rises
Climate Processes
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Mountain Meteorology
Temperature lapse rate
Westside annual mean = 1.4 (very moist air) to 1.9oF
(fairly dry air) per 1000 feet elevation
Eastside annual mean ≈ 1oF greater (air much drier)
If it's 50oF in Olympia, what's the temperature on top of
Mt. Rainier?
Climate Processes
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Mountain Meteorology
Humidity
Absolute humidity – amount of water vapor in the air
Relative humidity – amount of water vapor in the air
as a percent of the maximum amount of water vapor
the air can hold
Climate Processes
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Mountain Meteorology
Humidity
The warmer the air, the more water vapor it can hold
Climate Processes
Ab
so
lute
hu
mid
ity
Temperature
relative humidity
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Mountain Meteorology
Humidity
If relative humidity rises to 100%, water vapor condenses out of air
to form water droplets
The result is cloud formation (even in moving air)
Climate Processes
extreme example: lenticular clouds
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Mountain Meteorology
Humidity
If air temperature falls to the dewpoint (temperature at which
relative humidity =100%),
fog, dew, or frost forms
(requires calm air)
Climate Processes
fog forms in air near ground
dew and frost form on surfaces
> 32oF
< 32oF
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Orographic precipitation & temperature
Mountain Meteorology
Climate and Topography
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Mountain Meteorology
Rain shadow effect
Climate and Topography
Cascades Olympics
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Mountain Meteorology
Unstable atmosphere
Atmospheric stability – resistance of the atmosphere to
to vertical motion
Stable Air
When an air parcel is colder and denser than the surrounding air,
it will stay at the same level or sink
Unstable Air
When an air parcel is warmer and less dense than the
surrounding air, it will rise
Weather Processes
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Mountain Meteorology
Unstable atmosphere
Mechanisms of air lifting
Weather Processes
convective lifting
orographic lifting
frontal lifting
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Mountain Meteorology
Thunderstorm formation - occurs when there is lifting
of air for long enough to a high-enough elevation
Weather Processes
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Mountain Meteorology
Thunderstorm phenomena
Weather Processes
gust front
downdraft
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Mountain Meteorology
Thunderstorm phenomena
Weather Processes
Hail
Lightning
cloud-to-cloud cloud-to-ground
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Mountain Meteorology
Temperature inversions
Ele
vation
→
Temperature →
"undercast"
Weather and Topography
Hoh River Valley
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Mountain Meteorology
Wind
Compression of air flowing over ridgetops or through
passes increases windspeed (partially due to Venturi
effect)
Weather Processes
ridge
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Mountain Meteorology
Wind
Two clues to prevailing wind direction
Weather Processes
flag trees
rime ice
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Mountain Meteorology
Wind
Weather Processes
snow banner
snow cornice
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Mountain Meteorology
Local mountain winds
Weather Processes
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Mountain Meteorology
Cold air ponding
Weather Processes
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Mountain Meteorology
Movement of frontal systems is determined, in part,
by prevailing wind …
Frontal Systems
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Mountain Meteorology
… and by the position
of the Jet Stream
Frontal Systems
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Mountain Meteorology
Front = boundary between two dissimilar air masses
cold front warm front
Frontal Systems
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Mountain Meteorology
Frontal Systems
Wind created as air flows
from high to low pressure
In Northern Hemisphere,
coriolis force causes counter-
clockwise diversion of wind
cooler air
warmer air
Isobar (lines of equal pressure) map
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Mountain Meteorology
Frontal Systems
Seasonal patterns
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Mountain Meteorology
What clouds can tell us
cirrus clouds
Clouds
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Mountain Meteorology
What clouds can tell us
lenticular clouds
Clouds
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Mountain Meteorology
What clouds can tell us
altostratus clouds
Clouds
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Mountain Meteorology
What clouds can tell us
nimbostratus clouds
Clouds
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Mountain Meteorology
What clouds can tell us
cumulus clouds
Clouds
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Mountain Meteorology
What clouds can tell us
cumulonimbus clouds
Clouds
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Mountain Meteorology
Washington Weather Records
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Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
valley glacier hanging glacier
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Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
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Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Bergschrund
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Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
Moraines
terminal
lateral
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firn line
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
below firn line
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Crevasses
transverse
crevasses
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
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Crevasses
radial
crevasses
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
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Icefalls
Glacier Travel
Glacier Anatomy
seracs
Nisqually Glacier
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Roping up
Minimum standard on Basic Glacier climbs is two ropes
of at least three climbers. Why?
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
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Roping up
end persons middle person
double bowlinerewoven figure 8prusiks
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
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Rope movement
rope between climbers almost taut
rope leader probes for crevasses
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
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Moving among crevasses
Best to travel at right angles to
crevasses, doing "end runs”
Don’t forget crevasses may
extend beyond their visible
ends as hidden crevasses
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
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Moving among crevasses
if traveling parallel to
crevasses, use
"echelon" formation
Whoever falls may pendulum!
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
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Crossing crevasses
narrow crevasse snow bridge over
large crevasse
use boot-axe belay
or
standing ice axe-
carabiner belay
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
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Crevasse rescue
If possible, practice with other students in advance
Review crevasse rescue figures in Freedom
Pay close attention during Z-pulley practice
Glacier Travel
Moving Across Glaciers
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Climbing Hazards
Face It: Climbing Can Be Hazardous!
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Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
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Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
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Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
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Climbing Hazards
Mountaineering Accidents
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More Objective More Subjective
Less Control Over Occurrence
Climbing Hazards
Perception of Risk
AttitudeAssume there will always be
hazards
Cavalier vs. fearful
ExperiencePlanning
Encountering hazards on the climb
Learn from your and others'
mistakes
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Climbing Hazards
Crevasses
Snow bridges
Hidden crevassesPresence may be indicated by small
holes or a depression in snow
In early season, may be no visual signs
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Climbing Hazards
Crevasses
bergschrund
moat
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Causes of rockfall
Freeze-thaw
Liquid water enters cracks in rocks
When it freezes, water expands, wedging rock apart
Eventually, chunk of rock detached from rest of rock
Melting of snow/ice holding rocks in place
On steep slopes that hold snow, small rocks are held in
place overnight by iced
When sun or warming temperature melts ice, rocks are
released
Climbers knocking down rocks (very common)
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
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Watchout situations (rockfall)
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
rotten rock, freeze-thaw gully with climbers
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Watchout situations
(icefall)
Climbing Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
seracs
icefalls
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What do you do if someone yells “Rock!”
a) Put on your helmet
b) Look up and try to find rock
c) Look down, flatten against cliff face
What does falling rock sound like?
a) No sound
b) Cracking sounds as rock bounces
c) Loud “whinging” sound as rock goes by
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
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minimize
risk of
injury
prevention
avoidance
Mountain Hazards
Rockfall & Icefall
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avoidanceMountain Hazards
High Winds
High wind in the open (e.g., at or above treeline)
hypothermia (lowering
of body temperature)
whiteout
(loss of visibility)
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Mountain Hazards
High Winds
High wind in the forest
windthrow (uprooting)
windsnap
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Mountain Hazards
Lightning
Potential injuriesCardiac arrest
Blunt head trauma
Perforated eardrum
Spinal cord damage
Superficial minor burns
Altered mental state
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Mountain Hazards
Lightning
Prevention through avoidance is best option
Move away from direction of thunderstorm motion
Descend
What to do if caught in lightning
Avoid isolated trees and rocks
Stay away from water
Stay away from metal (move away from climbing gear)
Spread out (about 50 feet apart)
Insulate yourself from the ground
Crouch and cover head and ears
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If you are out of shape, you put everyone in your party
at risk, at least of disappointment, if not life and limb
Engage in a pre-season conditioning regime
(this is why we require conditioners)
Start a climb well-hydrated and well-rested
Let the climb/MOFA leaders know about health conditions
Mountain Hazards
Conditioning
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Human heat loss/gain
radiation conduction convection
evaporation
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Human heat loss/gain
conduction + convection
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Hypothermia
Drop in core body temperature below 95oF
First degree
uncontrollable shivering
lethargy, apathy, confusion
lack of motor coordination
rapid heart rate
Second degree
shivering stops
delirium
slowing heart rate
Third degree
coma
ventricular fibrillation
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Hypothermia
Can happen at surprisingly warm temperatures
if you become wet and it’s windy
Treatment
get patient out of environment causing hypothermia
into warmer, dry, non-windy location
remove wet clothing
rewarm as rapidly as possible
offer warm liquids if patient conscious
may require healthy person sharing sleeping bag
with patient
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Frostbite
Freezing of exposed tissues
First degree ("frostnip")
superficial, quick recovery
Second degree
blistering but tissue recovers
permanent loss of sensitivity
Third degree
tissue death and loss
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Frostbite
Frostbite and hypothermia often go together!
Treatment
remove patient from source of frostbite
first degree
place injury next to warm body part
second/third degree
keep injury frozen
give plenty of fluids
evacuate to where thawing can be done
properly by medical professionals
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Heat Exhaustion
Cause: profuse sweating coupled w/ inadequate
hydration
Symptoms
nausea, dizziness, thirst, headache
Treatment
get patient into cool, shady location
administer fluids, slowly at first
replace electrolytes
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Sunburn
Snowblindness
Burning of cornea of eyes by UV-B
severe pain
swollen eyelids
headache
temporary blindness
symptoms take 6-12 hours to develop
Prevention
Wear dark glasses
transmit 5-10% of visible light
block 90-95% of UV-A and UV-B
sideshields if there is reflected light
Mountain Hazards
Heat & Cold Injuries
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Physiological effects
Hard on kidneys
Increased risk of heat exhaustion and heat stroke
Increased risk of hypothermia and frostbite
Staying hydrated
Drink one water bottle (32 oz) every 4 hours
Water bottles vs. hydration packs
Mountain Hazards
Dehydration
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Sources of contamination
Humans Animals
Types of contamination
Bacteria Viruses
Parasites
Giardia - very widespread now in backcountry;
cysts resist heat, cold, dessication
cysts trophozoites
Mountain Hazards
Contaminated Water
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On top of Mt. Rainier, air pressure is
what percent of that at sea level?
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation
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As elevation increases, the risk of the following
increases:
Sunburn – why?
Dehydration – why?
Hypothermia & frostbite – why?
Conditions caused by low oxygen pressure:
Cheynes-Stokes breathing
Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)
High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE)
High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation
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Acute Mountain Sickness
Cause: rapid ascent to higher elevation
50% of folks ascending to 8,000 to 14,000 ft
Symptoms
insomnia
listlessness
appetite loss
nausea & vomiting
lightheadedness or dizziness
Treatment
rest and hydration
if it gets worse, descend
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation
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Pulmonary edema (HAPE)
Cause: body fluids leak into lungs
Symptoms
develop rapidly
breathlessness
labored breathing with bubbly noise
Cerebral edema (HACE)
Cause: blood vessels leak fluid into brain
Symptoms
headache
loss of coordination
confusion → hallucination
coma
Treatment of
HAPE & HACE
Descend!
Mountain Hazards
Effects of High Elevation