Morphology
An Introduction tothe Structure of Words
By Christian Monson
Goals
• Introduction to morphology– look at one interesting morphological
phenomenon—allomorphy
• To help you read linguistic texts– what features can morphemes realize
What is a Word?
• There are no spaces in spoken language
Hewenttotownonhishorse
He went to town on his horse
Hew entt otow non hi shor se
Example of Words (Hungarian)
a) Jánosénekel
John sings
b) Máriaénekel
Mary sings
c) Máriafut
Mary runs
Example of Words (Hungarian)
a) Jánosénekel
John sings
b) Máriaénekel
Mary sings
c) Máriafut
Mary runs
What is a Word?
• Possible Criteria– Recurring units of form and meaning
– The smallest things you can say in isolation
– Pauses are not possible inside a word
• There are many exceptions to these rules– Linguists always qualify what they mean by a word
• In this class words will be separated by spaces.– Even if the orthography of the language does not use spaces
Morphemes
• Smallest unit of form and meaning– Here too there are exceptions but most linguists
pretend that morphemes really do exist
Example of Morphemes (Hungarian again)
keresek I seek
keresel you seek
keres he/she/it seeks
hiszek I believe
hiszel you believe
hisz he/she/it believes
Example of Morphemes (Hungarian again)
keresek I seek
keresel you seek
keresØ he/she/it seeks
hiszek I believe
hiszel you believe
hiszØ he/she/it believes
Allomorphs
• Same meaning
• Different form
• Complementary distribution
Allomorphy Example:English Plural
bags, crabs, accidents, names, lollipops, brushes, churches, maps, toes, faces, beds, books, prizes, flies, giraffes, deaths, judges, garages…
Allomorphy Example:English Plural
bags, crabs, accidents, names, lollipops, brushes, churches, maps, toes, faces, beds, books, prizes, flies, giraffes, deaths, judges, garages…
s z *z
accidents beds faces
books bags prizes
lollipops crabs churches
maps names brushes
giraffes toes judges
deaths flies garages
* = reduced vowel
Allomorph Environments
• Each allomorph has a separate environment• Environments are complementary
– Wrong: s occurs after consonants– Because: z and *z also occur after consonants
• Environments are complete– Wrong: z occurs after vowels– Because: z also occurs after voiced non-sibilants
• No unused environments– Wrong (usually): The plural of words ending in the
phoneme p do not exist
English Plural Cont.
• Identify the allomorph environments
• Generalize if possible – may require phonology—not covered in this class.
English Plural Cont.
• Identify the allomorph environments
• Generalize if possible – may require phonology—not covered in this class.
Allomorph s z *z
Environment ? ? ?
English Plural Cont.
• Identify the allomorph environments
• Generalize if possible – may require phonology—not covered in this class.
Allomorph s z *z
Word-Final Phoneme
t, k, p, f, th(voiceless)
d, g, b, m, v, l, r, and vowels
s, z, ch, sh, dg, ž
English Plural Cont.
• Identify the allomorph environments
• Generalize if possible – may require phonology—not covered in this class.
Allomorph s z *z
Word-Final Phoneme
t, k, p, f, th(voiceless)
d, g, b, m, v, l, r, and vowels
s, z, ch, sh, dg, ž
Generalize ? ? ?
English Plural Cont.
• Identify the allomorph environments
• Generalize if possible – may require phonology—not covered in this class.
Allomorph s z *z
Word-Final Phoneme
t, k, p, f, th(voiceless)
d, g, b, m, v, l, r, and vowels
s, z, ch, sh, dg, ž
Generalize
voiceless non-
sibilant consonants
voiced non-sibilant
soundssibilants
Complementary Distribution
Complementary Distribution
All Sounds (consonants + vowels)
Complementary Distribution
All Sounds (consonants + vowels)
Consonants (b, d, f, g, k, l, m, …)
Complementary Distribution
All Sounds (consonants + vowels)
Consonants (b, d, f, g, k, l, m, …)
Sibilants (s, z, sh, ch, dg, …)
Complementary Distribution
All Sounds (consonants + vowels)
Consonants (b, d, f, g, k, l, m, …)
Sibilants (s, z, sh, ch, dg, …)Voiced (b, d, dg, g, l, m, …)
Complementary Distribution
All Sounds (consonants + vowels)
Consonants (b, d, f, g, k, l, m, …)
Sibilants (s, z, sh, ch, dg, …)Voiced (b, d, dg, g, l, m, …)
*z
Complementary Distribution
All Sounds (consonants + vowels)
Consonants (b, d, f, g, k, l, m, …)
Sibilants (s, z, sh, ch, dg, …)Voiced (b, d, dg, g, l, m, …)
*z
s
Complementary Distribution
All Sounds (consonants + vowels)
Consonants (b, d, f, g, k, l, m, …)
Sibilants (s, z, sh, ch, dg, …)Voiced (b, d, dg, g, l, m, …)
z
*z
s
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
hoz-ok vár-ok szűn-ök hisz-ek
bring-1sgPres wait-1sgPres cease-1sgPres believe-1sgPres
keres-ek tud-ok isz-ok kér-ek
seek-1sgPres know-1sgPres drink-1sgPres ask-1sgPres
mos-ok vesz-ek ad-ok hív-ok
wash-1sgPres buy-1sgPres give-1sgPres call-1sgPres
köt-ök üt-ök főz-ök tart-ok
tie-1sgPres hit-1sgPres cook-1sgPres hold-1sgPres
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
ok ek ök
ad-ok isz-ok vesz-ek köt-ök
give-1sgPres drink-1sgPres buy-1sgPres tie-1sgPres
tart-ok hív-ok keres-ek főz-ök
hold-1sgPres call-1sgPres seek-1sgPres cook-1sgPres
vár-ok hoz-ok kér-ek üt-ök
wait-1sgPres bring-1sgPres ask-1sgPres hit-1sgPres
tud-ok mos-ok hisz-ek szűn-ök
know-1sgPres wash-1sgPres believe-1sgPres cease-1sgPres
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Environment ? ? ?
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized ? ? ?
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized back front front-rounded
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized back front front-rounded
All Vowels
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized back front front-rounded
All Vowels
Front Vowels
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized back front front-rounded
All Vowels
Front Vowels
Front Rounded Vowels
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized back front front-rounded
All Vowels
Front Vowels
Front Rounded Vowels
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized back front front-rounded
All Vowels
Front Vowels
Front Rounded Vowels
Allomorphy Example:Hungarian Present Tense 1sg
Allomorph ok ek ök
Stem Vowel a, á, (i), í, o, ó, u, ú e, é, (i) ö, ő, ü, ű
Generalized back front front-rounded
All Vowels
Front Vowels
Front Rounded Vowels
Features
• Nouns
Features
• Nouns– number
• singular, dual, plural
– case• nominative, accusative, dative, …
– gender/class• male, female, neuter
• animate, inanimate, man-made object, shape, …
Features
• Verbs
Features
• Verbs– Person
• first, second, third, third person far removed, …
– Number– Tense
• present, past, future, remote past, ...
– Aspect• perfective, imperfective, habitual, repetitive, …
– Mood• indicative, conditional, subjunctive (doubt or possibility), …
Other Parts of Speech
• Adjectives
• Adverbs
• Determiners and Specifiers
Other Parts of Speech
• Adjectives– Degree
• positive, comparative, superlative, etc.
– Number, Gender, Case
• Adverbs– Degree, …
• Determiners and Specifiers– Case– Who knows!
• This is what Linguists try to elicit and categorize