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Motivation:Organizational Applications
Organizations:Behavior, Structure, Processes
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Learning Objectives
Explaindifferences between social learningtheory and reinforcement theory
Discusshow self-managing can be useful indeveloping a motivation program
Describehow expectancy, equity, and goal-setting theories are used to motivateemployees
Defineintrinsic and extrinsic rewards andhow these rewards influence employeemotivation
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Learning Objectives
Explainreward programs found inhigh-performance organizations
Understandthe strengths and weaknessesof nontraditional reward programs
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The Sage of Stock Options
Stock options Have replaced salary
and bonuses asthe most significant
part of executive pay Place a lien against the company
When exercised, reduce the valueof other stock shares
May reward one person and distress others
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Learning
One of the fundamental processesunderlying behavior and motivation A relatively enduring change in behavior
occurs as a result of practice
Changes in behavior that characterizelearning may be Adaptive and promote effectiveness
Non-adaptive and ineffective
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Social Learning
Behavior is acquired through observationand imitation of others in a social context Continuous interaction of cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental determinants
Can be positive or negative
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Social Learning
Social learning theory introduces Vicarious learning (modeling) Symbolism
Self-control
Self-efficacy, a central part of sociallearning theory, has three dimensions Magnitude
Strength Generality
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Pygmalion Effect
Pygmalion Effect
The enhanced learning orperformance that results from
others having positive
expectations of us.
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Operant Conditioning
Learning that occurs as a consequenceof behavior Operants are behaviors that can be
controlled by altering reinforcers and
the punishments that follow them Behavior modification
An approach to motivation that uses
principles of operant conditioning Learning by reinforcement
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Example of Operant Conditioning
S1
Memoinstructing
subordinate toprepare budget
Conditionedstimulus
R1
Preparingweeklybudgets
Conditionedoperant
response
R2
A sense ofsatisfaction
Unconditionedresponse
S2
Receivingvalued
praise from
superior
Reinforcingstimulus
Antecedent Behavior Consequence
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Principles of Operant Conditioning
Positive reinforcement Action that increases the likelihood of a behavior
Negative reinforcement Strengthens a behavior because the behavior
removes some painful or unpleasant stimulus
Punishment Undesirable consequence that results in the
suppression of the behavior that brought it about
Extinction Decline in response rate due to non-reinforcement
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Behavior Modification
Identify and define the specific behavior Can it be seen? Can it be measured?
Measure or count occurrencesof the pinpointed behavior Provides a baseline from which to
determine if the behavior is changing
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Applied Behavior Modification
Conduct ABC analysis of the behavior A = analyzing the antecedents B = pinpointing critical behaviors
C = associated consequence
Then Develop an action plan and strategies
Evaluate the behavior
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Performance Analysis Questions
Antecedent Do employees know what is expected? Are the standards clear?
Have they been communicated?
Are they realistic? Behavior
Can the behavior be performed?
Could employees do it if their livesdepended on it?
Does something prevent its occurrence?
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Performance Analysis Questions
Consequence Are consequences weighted in favor ofperformance?
Are improvements being reinforced?
Are improvements noted, even when theemployee is below company standards?
Is reinforcement specific?
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Applied Behavior Modification
Managers Step-by-Step Procedure
Feedback to make changes
Pinpoint
specificbehavior
Evaluatecritical behavior
Comparebaseline vs.after-actionbehaviors
Measure,count, andformulate
baselinepoint
for criticalbehaviors
Perform theABC analysis
AntecedentBehaviorConsequence
Form actionplan, strategies
Positive
reinforcementNegative reinforcementExtinctionPunishment
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ABC Analysis - Absenteeism Problem
AANTECEDENT(S)
Family problemsPersonal health
IllnessJury duty
No transportationCompany policies
Group normFriends visiting
Injured on way to workHangover
No child care facilitiesLack of proper tools/clothing
BBEHAVIOR(S)
Staying homeShopping
OversleepingGetting up lateAttending sporting event
Working at homeVisiting
Serving on juryIn emergency roomAt doctors office
CCONSEQUENCE(S)
Public reprimandPrivate reprimand
Written record & reprimandReduction in pay
SuspensionFiring
Social isolation from group
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Reinforcement Theory
Research results Strong evidence that OBM makes apositive contribution to organizationalbehavior
Absenteeism rates, quality of production,and employee safety behaviors improve
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Reinforcement Theory
Criticisms Bribery, not a real change in behavior Reinforcements not linked to beliefs,
values, or mental processes
Self-reinforcement ignored Behavior becomes too dependent on
the reinforcer and wont occur without it
Perceptual differences in utilization of
positive reinforcement
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Reinforcement Theory
When expressing appreciation andreinforcing good behavior Describe the desired behavior in
specific terms, not generalization
Explain why the behavior is goodfor the organization
Include a personalexpression of thanks
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Behavioral Self-Management (BSM)
Facing response alternatives that havedifferent consequences
Selecting or modifying behavior bymanaging Cognitive processes
Causes
Consequences
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Kafners Self-Regulation Model
Self-reinforcement
I really did anoutstanding job. Theboss smiled when we
were talking about myperformance. Hesreally a lot like Tony
(previous boss).
Self-monitoring
A new boss - Iwonder whethermy performance
will be goodenough. I hope so.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3Self-evaluation
I was considered anexcellent performerby Tony (previous
boss). He knew my
quantity and qualityof output were
excellent. I need tofind out what the new
boss considersexcellent in terms of
quantity and quality.
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Goal-Setting Theory: Key Concepts
Goal setting The process of establishing goals
Conscious goals Goals that a person is trying to achieve and
is aware of when directing behavior Goal specificity
Level of performance required to achieve
the goal
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Goal-Setting Theory: Key Concepts
Goal difficulty Level of performance required to achieve a
goal
Goal intensity
Process of setting a goal or determininghow to reach it
Goal commitment
Amount of effort used to achieve a goal
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Goal Setting: Core Steps
1. Specificity
2. Difficulty3. Intensity4. Commitment
1. Frequency
2. Exchange of ideas
3. Modifications
1. Discussion
2. Analysis3. Development4. Recycling
Improved
motivation toPerformPlanOrganizeControl
Goal-Setting
AttributesIntermediate
Review
Final
Revie
w
AnticipatedResults
Feedback
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Goal Setting Research
Locke and associates found that Specific goals lead to higher output than do
vague goals
Achieving goals provides workers with a
sense of achievement, recognition, andcommitment
Having a goal allows workers to comparetheir performance with that of others
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Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
Need achievement
High
Jobperform
ance
Low
Easy Moderate HardGoal difficulty
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Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
Expectancy theory
High
Jobperform
ance
Low
Easy Moderate Hard
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Goal Difficulty-Performance Relationship
Goal-setting theory
High
Jobperform
ance
Low
Easy Moderate Hard
Goal difficulty
A = Performanceof committedperson with ability
B= Performanceof committedperson working atfull capacity
C= Performanceof person lackingcommitment
B
A
C
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Participation Factor
Conflicting theories Latham when goal difficulty is held
constant, there is no difference in goalcommitment or performance, whether the
goal is assigned or set participatively Erez participation in goal setting is crucial
to goal commitment
Findings of experiments Participation had no effect on goal
commitment or performance
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Individual Differences
Participation in goal setting mayincrease job performance Social factor of group discussion
Motivational factor of being involvedin the goal-setting process
Cognitive factor of information sharing
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Individual Differences
Social and motivational factorsincrease Performance quantity
Learning the task
Goal acceptance Group commitment
Satisfaction
Conflicting goals Can lead to decreased performance,
regardless of goal commitment, goalimportance, or strategies used
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Criticisms of Goal Setting
Goal setting Complex and difficult to sustain
Works well for simple jobs, but not forcomplex jobs
Encourages game playing. Is used as another check on employees
Goal accomplishment
Can become an obsession
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Motivation Theory: Key Conclusions
Managers Can influence employee motivation
Must remember that ability, competence,and opportunity all affect motivation
Must continually monitor employees needs,abilities, goals, preferences
Must channel self-motivated behaviorinto productive results
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Motivation Theory: Key Conclusions
Managers Are role models who influence employee
motivation
Must provide incentives for employees
Should establish moderately difficult goalsto direct behavior
Should provide jobs that offer equity, taskchallenge, diversity, need satisfaction
Must energize, sustain, and directmotivation
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Organizational Reward Systems
Main objectives of reward programs Getting qualified people to join the
organization
Keeping employees
coming to work Motivating employees
to achieve high levelsof performance
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The Reward Process
Feedback
Motivation to
exert effort
Performance
results:individual
Ability
and skill
Experience
Performance
evaluation
Satisfaction
Intrinsic
rewards
Extrinsic
rewards
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Lawlers Conclusions
Reward satisfaction is influenced by How much is received and how much
the person feels should be received
Comparisons with others
People differ in the Rewards they desire
The importance they place on them
Some rewards are satisfying becausethey lead to other rewards
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Reward Packages
Any reward package should be Sufficient to satisfy basic needs
Considered equitable Individually oriented
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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
Extrinsic Rewards Salary, wages, fringe benefits
Interpersonal rewards
Recognition and promotions
Intrinsic Rewards Completion
Achievement
Personal growth Autonomy
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Rewards, Turnover, Absenteeism
Managers can
Influence employee attendance behavior
Punish, establish bonuses, and allowemployee participation in developing plans
Absenteeism reduction is determined by The perceived value of the rewards
The amount of the rewards
Whether employees see a relationshipbetween attendance and rewards
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Rewards and Job Performance
Key points Each person has different needs and
perceptions, so outcomes have differentvalues
Managers must consider individualdifferences when choosing rewards
Valued rewards can result in the exertion ofeffort and high levels of performance
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Commitment Attitudes
Commitment to an organizationinvolves... A sense of identification with
the organizations goals
Involvement in organizationalduties
A feeling of loyalty for theorganization
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Organizational Commitment
Use intrinsic rewards to developorganizational commitment Provide achievement opportunities
Recognize achievement when it occurs
Develop intrinsic reward systems that focuson personal importance or self-esteem
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Reward Systems & High Performance
New, innovative, but untested rewardsystems Cafeteria-style fringe benefits
Banking time off
Skill-based pay Gainsharing
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