Late Middle Palaeolithic Red Ochre Use at Torajunga, an
Open‐Air Site in the Bargarh Upland, Odisha, India:
Evidence for Long Distance Contact and Advanced
Cognition
Pradeep K. Behera1 and Neena Thakur1
1. Post Graduate Department of History, Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar, Burla ‐
768 019, Odisha, India (Email: [email protected])
Received: 16 July 2018; Revised: 08 September 2018; Accepted: 01 October 2018
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 6 (2018): 129‐147
Abstract: Red ochre or hydrated iron oxide is one of the most common mineral pigments, used by Homo
sapiens since the Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age times or even earlier. Use of red ochre is often
considered as important proxy of modern human behaviour, symbolism and increased cognitive and
communicative abilities in the prehistoric material records. Our recent investigation at the open‐air site
of Torajunga in the Bargarh Upland of Odisha, brought to light utilized block/lumps of red ochre with
distinct marks of rubbing/grinding on their surface associated with a late Middle Palaeolithic
sedimentary context. The lithic assemblage contained a few backed tools, including lunates and points.
The nearest source of red ochre lies more than sixty kilometers further north of the site in the Permian‐
Triassic Kamthi Formation. The present evidence suggests that the late Pleistocene microlith using
communities of this area imported red ochre from distant sources, while they exploited locally available
chert and other raw material for manufacturing lithic tools. Use of red ochre is frequently attributed to
ritualistic and/or non‐utilitarian behaviour of the early hominins. This paper considers to discuss the
temporal and contextual significance of the occurrence of red ochre in the late Middle Palaeolithic
assemblage at Torajunga.
Keywords: Torajunga, Lithic Assemblages, Late Pleistocene, Red Ochre, Late Middle
Palaeolithic, Microliths, Modern Human
Introduction A great deal of discussion has recently been focussed on the nature of human
behavioural evolution in the Late Pleistocene period across the world. Very often use
of red ochre/iron oxide is considered as one of the indicators of development of early
symbolic behaviour among the modern hominins (Chase and Dibble 1987: 263‐296,
Mellars 1989: 349‐385, Chase 1994: 627‐629, Klein 2000: 17‐36, McBrearty and Brooks
2000: 453‐563, D’Errico et al 2005: 3‐24, James and Petraglia 2005: 3‐27, Marean and
Assefa 2005: 93‐129, etc.). Red ochre is generally haematite (α‐Fe2O3) with a red to red‐
brown streak and a hexagonal crystal system (Schwertmann and Cornell 1991). Since at
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least the early Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age times these minerals have been
used by hominins for various purposes and have been documented at a number of
archaeological sites in varied spatio‐temporal and cultural contexts, even though their
specific function is largely unknown, except in the case of rock art sites. Several Middle
Stone Age sites in Africa provided evidence for use of red ochre dating back to about
more than 200‐300 thousand years onwards (Evans 1994: 63‐73, Watts I 2009: 62‐92,
Watts I 2010: 392‐411, Henshilwood and Dubreuil 2009: 41‐61, Henshilwood et al 2011:
219‐222, Barham 2002: 181‐190, McBrearty and Brooks 2000: 453‐563, Mackay and Welz
2008: 1521‐1532, Gibson et al 2004: 1‐11, Lombard 2006: 57‐62, Lombard 2007: 406‐419,
Lombard 2009: 4‐12, etc.). In Europe recent studies have shown more than 40 Middle
Palaeolithic sites associated with possible red ochre/manganese oxide pigment use
between from at least 60‐40 thousand years onwards (D’Errico et al 2010: 3099‐3110,
Soressi et al 2008: 95‐132, Tr bska et al 2010: 205‐217, etc.). Significantly, the Maastricht‐
Belvedere site in The Netherlands and the Benzu rock shelter in Spain (Roebroeks et al
2012: 1889‐1894) have produced evidence for use of this mineral by the early
Neanderthals dating back to about 200–250 thousand years ago. Ethnographic records
reveal that iron oxides/red ochre can be used for a variety of purposes, namely, food
preservation, preparation of hides, body decoration, mortuary/ritualistic practices,
adhesive/glue for lithic hafting, insect repellent and also as medicine (Wadley et al
2004: 661‐675, Wadley et al 2009: 9590‐9594, Watts 2009: 62‐92, Watts 2010: 392‐411,
Roper 1991: 289‐301, Velo 1984: 674, Peile 1979: 214‐217, Basedow 1925, etc.).
In South Asia microlithic industries are fairly widespread in Holocene contexts and
have been reported from a wide variety of habitats (Misra 2001: 491‐531, Misra and Pal
2002, Sosnowska 2011: 95‐139, etc.). However, recent studies at Mehtakheri in the
Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh (Mishra et al 2013: 1‐14), Jwalapuram in the Jurreru
river valley of Andhra Pradesh (Clarkson et al 2009: 326‐348) and at Mahadebbera and
Kana in Purulia district of West Bengal (Basak et al 2014: 1167‐1171) have pushed back
the antiquity of microlithic tradition in India to the late Pleistocene period. By about
the same time period (c. 38 thousand years ago) microlithic technologies also appeared
in the tropical rain forest of Sri Lanka associated with earliest Homo sapiens fossils,
osseous technologies, along with evidence for symbolic behaviour and long‐distance
exchange (Deraniyagala 2007: 1‐96, Perera 2010, Perera et al 2011:254‐269, Roberts et al
2015:69‐112, Clarkson et al 2018: 37‐61, etc.).
The occurrence of microlithic technologies at many different places clearly suggests its
versatility and significance, which had an earlier beginning in the sub‐continent,
hitherto not expected. However, evidence for red ochre/iron oxide use at open air sites
in the Late Pleistocene context has not yet been reported from none of the microlith‐
bearing sites in South Asia. At Jwalapuram, Locality‐9 rock shelter, striated red ochre
crayon with several grinding facets have been reported from N3, Level 34, Stratum
C/D interface, belonging to the late Pleistocene sedimentary context dating back to
about 34–33 BP (Clarkson et al 2009). Use of red ochre in the late Pleistocene has also
been widely reported from Sri Lanka but, in most of the cases those have been
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documented from closed cave and/or rock shelter sites, leaving large gaps in our
understanding pertaining to the use of this mineral in the open‐air site contexts.
Recent prehistoric investigations at the site of Torajunga in the Bargarh Upland of
Odisha has brought to light, for the first time, evidence for systematic use of red ochre
from the Late Pleistocene microlith context overlying the typical Middle Palaeolithic
deposit, characterised by the occurrence of small to medium‐sized handaxes and
cleavers (50‐100mm), besides blade and Levallois cores, tanged points, discoids, etc.
This paper aims to summarize our work at Torajunga with particular emphasis on the
early use of red ochre.
Figure 1: Massive Rock Shelter Formations in the Debrigarh‐Lohara Massif
The Area and its Environmental Contexts Spreading over 2690 km2 surface area, major part of the Bargarh upland forms of
pedimented erosional surface with the general relief varying between 140m and 250m
above mean sea level. It is bounded on the west and north‐west by eastern massif of
Sarangarh and Raipur districts of Chhattisgarh, while on the north, east, south‐east,
and south by Debrigarh massif of Bargarh district, and uplands of Sambalpur,
Subarnapur and Balangir districts of Odisha, respectively. The area lying towards
north and north‐west of the upland mainly comprises of meta‐sedimentary rocks, viz.
coarse, earthy, felspathic, and other varieties of quartzite, conglomerate, shale and
calcareous shale, belonging to the Chhattisgarh Supergroup (Das et al 1992:). Several
massive rock shelters are present in the highly jointed quartzite formations (Figure 1)
of the Debrigarh‐Lohara massif, a few of which contain rock art.
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Figure 2: Use of Red Ochre in the Rock Art Site of Debrigarh
The rock art consists of human palm forms, patterns, animals and rarely human forms
(Figure 2), executed in different shades of red ochre, viz., reddish‐orange and dark
purple colours (ignca.nic.in/asi_reports/orbargarh008.pdf). The floor of these shelters
is strewn with microliths (both geometric and non‐geometric) showing different stages
of production. The constituent rocks of the upland are a variety of granitic rocks
varying in composition from tonalite, medium‐grained granodiorite, porphyritic
granodiorite, alkaline‐granite, etc., referred to as ‘Sambalpur Granite’ by GSI (1997).
However the whole granitic unit is referred to as ‘West Orissa Granitic Complex’ by Naik
(1995). Older meta‐sedimentary rocks occur as enclaves within the granitic rocks,
which are intruded at places by dolerite dykes and quartz reef/veins. The area has
undergone intense tectonic deformations, as evident by the presence of numerous
faults and joints in the granitic rocks. Many of the fault zones are silicified and some
are filled with quartz veins. The silicified rocks are massive, fine‐grained and are of
various colours, from dirty white, yellowish to brown. Thin to thick quaternary
deposits overlie the eroded and weathered granitic basement with a prominent
unconformity. The Quaternary deposits have undergone large‐scale erosion at many
places, particularly in the western part of the upland, which is evident from the
presence of numerous alluvium filled palaeo‐channels that cut across the deposits.
Physiographically, the area is represented by three natural divisions such as, a) the
pedeplain with numerous seasonal streams, which form the tributaries of the river Jira,
b) the continuous hill range of Saraidamak on the west and north‐west which merges
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into the Debrigarh‐Lohara massif in the north, and c) isolated inselberg varying in
height from 255m to 312m within the upland. The granitic terrain is weathered to
varying depths at different places leaving behind isolated patches of unweathered
rocks. The massive weathering has given rise to the formation of the extensive
pedeplain in the region. The upland is not a leveled tract, but an expanse of undulating
country sloping down from the Saraidamak‐Debrigarh‐Lohara massif in the north‐west
and north to the Mahanadi valley in the east and south‐east. The overall drainage
pattern of the area is dendritic in nature with high drainage density, which is
characteristic of hard rock terrain with low relief. The Bargarh upland is drained by the
river Jira (a fourth order stream) and a network of first, second and third order
streams. It originates from near the eastern border of Sarangarh district of
Chhattisgarh, and after traversing for about 80 km in the district Bargarh in a south‐
easterly direction it joins the right bank of the Mahanadi at Brahmani‐Turum
(21005/19.87// N and 83050/23.24// E). Except the Jira most of the streams of this area are
ephemeral and retain water during the monsoon and post‐monsoon seasons, from July
to March.
Figure 3: Distribution of Late Acheulian‐Middle Palaeolithic and Microlithic
Localities in the Northern Part of the Bargarh Upland, and Location of Torajunga
The natural vegetation, which stands in a variety of landforms, ranging from low lying
river valleys to a chain of hills, is sparsely distributed in the area, being mostly
confined to the high lands lying towards north, north‐west and west of Bargarh
upland. The forest of this area is represented by tropical dry‐deciduous woodland with
predominance of bamboo and its associates. Since the beginning of the last century
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intensive human interference has caused large‐scale depletion in vegetation cover in
the area, which led to massive erosion of the top soil of the pedeplain leaving behind
patches of scrubs and erosional surfaces. The climate of this area is characterised by
long warm summers and cold winters, with mean annual rainfall of about 1500 mm
(Senapati and Mahanty 1971). Despite continued human interference the area still boast
a large variety wildlife including small and large game animals, confined mostly to the
Saraidamak‐Debrigarh‐Lohara massif, besides avian and aquatic species.
Figure 4: Satellite View of the Site of Torajunga and its Surroundings Indicating the
Extent of Site and Exploratory Trenches Taken during Different Seasons
The Site: Stratigraphy and Lithic Assemblages The open air site of Torajunga (Lat. 21˚29´ 22.70 ̋ N; Long. 83 ͦ 32´ 23.11 ̋ E), is located about five kilometers south of the Debrigarh massif and situated some 500 meters west
of the right bank of the Danta stream, a third order perennial tributary of the river Jira
(Figure 3). Our earlier intensive exploration in the area brought to light a large number
of open air sites associated with Late Acheulian‐Middle Palaeolithic‐Microlithic
assemblages in primary/semi‐primary sedimentary contexts (Behera et al 1996: 15‐26,
Behera et al 2015: 1‐13, Thakur 2016, Deep 2016). Even some of the sites are found to be
associated with large‐flake blank (>100mm) production and giant‐core technology.
Most of these sites are multi‐period sites and scatters of microlithic/flake‐blade
assemblages of cryptocrystalline stones are found at different levels on the exposed
erosional surface. In order to understand the stratigraphic contexts of the Late
Acheulian‐Middle Palaeolithic and microlithic surface assemblages, the site of
Torajunga was selected for a detailed probing and documentation.
The site of Torajunga is a multi‐period Palaeolithic settlement spreads over an area of
about 400m x 300m and oriented roughly northwest‐southeast (Figure 4). On the
central part of the site an elongated dyke of silicified rock is exposed to a length of
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about 150 meters. While the eastern part is well preserved, the western part is badly
eroded and deflated through rain gullies formed due to absence of vegetation cover
(Figure 5). The site is presently surrounded by agricultural fields. Earlier, exploration
conducted at the site revealed dense scatters of lithic artefacts of the Late
Acheulian/Middle Palaeolithic and microlithic traditions on the exposed surface lying
on the western part of the site (Figure 6 and 7).
Figure 5: The Western Part of the Site Showing Massive Erosional Surface
Figure 6: An Elongated Medium‐sized Handaxe of Quartzite Found on the Eroded
Surface of the Site with Angular Clasts
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Figure 7: A Cluster of Microliths of Chert and Quartz Found Exposed at the Site
As stated earlier, with a view to determining the stratigraphic context of the exposed
artefacts belonging to the Late Acheulian‐Middle Palaeolithic‐Microlithic traditions,
exploratory section scraping and trial excavations were carried out near the eroded
surface of the site between 2015 and 2017. In 2015 an exposed section located on the
western part was scraped, which revealed five distinct sedimentary units from top to
bottom. The upper level of the second unit consisted of slightly compact, reddish‐
brown, sandy‐silty‐clay mixed with loose ferricrete pellets, yielded a few microliths in
fresh condition, while the lower forth unit contained a fresh‐patinated triangular‐
shaped handaxe of medium size. An OSL date of 12.8±2.8 (TBO‐1) was obtained from
the upper level of second unit. In 2016 another small trench was made near the
scrapped section, which brought to light eight sedimentary units, of which the lower
level of fourth unit yielded two moderately patinated and ferruginous‐stained flakes of
black chert in fresh condition, while the fifth sedimentary unit of fine rubble in lateritic
matrix yielded three flakes of fine‐grained quartzite. During 2017 season two more
exploratory trenches were made in the western part of the site near the eroded surface
to confirm the occurrence of microliths in early sedimentary context, as detected in
Trench‐I. True to our expectations, microliths were observed in the lower sedimentary
levels (Litho unit‐3 in Trench‐II and Litho unit‐4 in Trench‐III), overlying the fine
rubble deposit in lateritic matrix (Figure 8). Depth‐wise frequency distribution of
microlithic assemblages from Trench‐II and III is shown in figures 9 and 10. The figures
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show predominance of flakes and bladelets in both the trenches. The available cores
engaged in the production of blanks are dominated by micro‐blade cores and are
mostly single‐platform unidirectional types. The mean length, width and thickness of
the microlithic artefacts from both the trenches are given in the Table 1. The mean
values show typical microlithic size‐range, (i.e., below <50mm). Retouched tools from
these trenches include, core‐end scraper, burins, notches, backed points, and
lunates/crescents. The raw materials employed for manufacturing lithic artefacts at
Torajunga, are dominated by quartz (including quartz crystals) and chert of different
colours. These presumably were extracted from several primary dykes/veins sources.
However, raw materials like chalcedony and agate, though sparsely used in tool
production at the site, may have come about 30 kilometers away, possibly from the
bed‐load of the river Mahanadi. The detailed techno‐typological and other attendant
features of the microlithic assemblages will be discussed elsewhere.
Figure 8: Showing Excavated Sections in Section Scraping, Trench‐I, II and III at
Torajunga
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Table1: Mean Values of Microlithic Artefacts from the Trenches
Artefact Category Mean Value
Length Breadth Thickness
Core 30.97 24.77 15.39
Flake 20.72 18.99 6.49
Blade 36.90 19.20 7.96
Bladelet 17.28 8.37 4.10
Table 2: Preliminary Details of the Unused and Used Haematite/Red Ochre Pieces in
Trench‐III at Torajunga
Sl.
No.
Sp. No./
Depth
(in cm)
Length
(in mm)
Width
(in mm)
Thickness
(in mm)
Weight
(in gm)
Description
1 III‐105/
100
35.61 36.67 21.56 47 Unused, tabular, slightly
rolled, pebble of
haematite.
2 III‐122/
100
29.28 25.25 12.06 17 Unused, broken half,
rolled pebble of
haematite.
3 III‐H‐1/
110
100.88 65.01 29.13 188 The dorsal face contains
grinding facets; ventral
face partly broken
during the
contemporary period,
probably during use;
slightly patinated
4 III‐H‐2/
110
86.45 74.92 38.46 223 Both dorsal and ventral
faces contain striated
grinding marks; no sign
of breakage on the faces;
slightly patinated.
5 III‐H‐3/
103
168.41 141.79 94.09 3330 Heavy, roughly
rectangular shaped;
probably quarried from
the source area; dorsal
face shows elongated‐
shallow depression at
the center, caused due to
grinding; ventral face
was not used; slightly
patinated; most likely it
was used as quern/
milling stone.
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Figure 9: Depth‐wise (in cm) Frequency Distribution of Microlithic Artefact Types in
Trench ‐ II
Figure 10: Depth‐wise Frequency Distribution of Microlithic Artefact Types in
Trench ‐ III
Sedimentary Context of Red Ochre at Torajunga During the trial excavation of Trench‐III at Torajunga in 2017, at a depth of 103cm
(Lower level of litho unit‐4), overlying the fine rubble deposit in lateritic matrix, two
unused nodules of haematite/red ochre and three used (Figure 11), one block with
shallow‐elongated striated grinding marks and two thick‐ovaloid lumps of red ochre
pieces with striated ground facets were recovered along with microliths (Table 2). All
the five pieces give distinct deep purple streak on hard rock. The block was most likely
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used as quern/milling stone for producing red ochre powder. Interestingly, the two
used ovaloid‐shaped red ochre pieces were found buried just under the quern, seems
intentionally done by the user. Evidence for red ochre could not be documented either
from the section scrapping or from Trench‐I and II.
Figure 11: Dorsal and Ventral Views of Unused (1 and 2) and Used (3, 4 and 5)
Haematite/Red Ochre Pieces from Trench ‐ III at Torajunga
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Figure 12: Geological formations found in the north‐western, western and north‐
western parts of Bargarh, Jharsuguda and Sundargarh district of Odisha,
respectively (based on GSI District Resource Maps 2002) in relation to Torajunga
Palaeolithic site
Provenance of Red Ochre Although samples of red ochre retrieved from the excavated contexts are submitted to
different laboratories for chemical characterization through X‐ray diffraction, X‐ray
fluorescence and electron probe microanalysis studies to determine the possible
source(s) of red ochre in the region from where the hominins procured these minerals
for use at Torajunga, a study of geological maps of Bargarh and its adjoining districts,
viz., Jharsuguda, Sundargarh and Sambalpur of Odisha, besides several seasons
exploration in these regions suggest that the nearest source of red ochre lies in the
Jharsuguda‐Sundargarh area where there is a huge concentration of rock art sites with
ochre paintings belonging to the Prehistoric‐Protohistoric‐Early Historic periods
(Behera 1992‐93: 1‐18, 2001: 1‐11, Pradhan 2001, etc.). Deposits of haematite/red ochre
are found inter‐bedded with ferruginous sand stone of Kamthi facies of Gondwana
Super Group belonging to the Permian‐Triassic Age (GSI 2002) and lying in the south‐
western and western part of Sundargarh and Jharsuguda districts, respectively (Figure
12). Though formations of quartzite and chert of different colours and grades are
abundantly found in the Debrigarh‐Lohara massif in the Bargarh upland, the nearest
source of haematite/red ochre lies across the massif in the south‐western and western
parts of Sundargarh and Jharsuguda districts, respectively. It seems likely that the
microlith using hominins at Torajunga were procuring lumps of red ochre from these
areas, either through regional exchange or direct access.
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Concluding Remarks The foregoing accounts of recent investigations at Torajunga in the Bargarh upland of
Odisha, provide new insights on the late Pleistocene modern human behaviour in the
region. The microlithic assemblages recovered from Trench‐II and III, though limited
in quantity, clearly suggest extensive exploitation of locally available lithic sources like
chert and quartz in primary/secondary contexts, besides procurement of very fine
quality of lithic raw materials like chalcedony and agate from distant sources by way
of regional exchange and/or direct access, suggesting increased foraging range.
Significantly, we documented a clear departure from the earlier practice of using local
lithic resources like quartzite and quartz during the Middle Palaeolithic/Late
Acheulian stage to preference for fine‐grained siliceous materials like chert, quartz,
crystal, chalcedony and agate in the later stage of the Middle Palaeolithic period. In
this context it may be pointed out that, though fine‐grained raw material like silicified
stone in the form of dyke occurs on the site, there is no evidence for its exploitation in
stone tool making. Mallol (1999) has rightly pointed out that palaeoeconomic strategies
can be detected in the archaeological record by examining spatio‐temporal
relationships between lithic raw material selection and technological traditions.
Presence of backed points and lunates/crescents in the microlithic assemblage at
Torajunga further attests to the adoption of new types tools and technology suggesting
thereby behavioural modernity and advanced cognition during the later stage of the
Middle Palaeolithic period (Ambrose 2002: 9‐29, Foley and Lahr 1997: 3‐36, 2003: 109‐
122, etc.).
As stated earlier, though the use of red ochre has been reported from a large number of
excavated rock art sites from rockshelter and/or cave contexts in South Asia, we do not
have yet evidence for its use at open air sites in late Pleistocene microlithic context. The
site of Torajunga, for the first time, provides unambiguous evidence for systematic use
of red ochre, procured from distant sources, in an apparent late Pleistocene
sedimentary context. Use of red ochre is considered as one of the major archaeological
signatures of modern human behaviour (McBrearty and Brooks 2000: 492) and can be
attributed specifically to hominid cognitive and cultural capabilities. Presence of
grinding block of red ochre with a shallow striated depression on the centre and two
ovaloid pieces of red ochre with grinding facets (Figure 11:3‐5) suggests systematic
production of ochre powder at Torajunga.
As regards to the use of red ochre, their use in rock shelters and caves may be
attributed largely to production of pictographs, while red ochre in open‐air sites
context, as at Torajunga, might indicate a use in hafting microliths for manufacture of
composite tools, body decoration, hide processing, etc. At several late Middle Stone
Age sites in northeastern Africa, tools with traces of ochre have been reported and
interpreted as remains of adhesive used for hafting (Rots et al 2011: 637–64). While
there is a wide range of potential applications of red ochre in ethnographic records, no
such specific purpose can be attributed to the used red ochre at Torajunga in view of
the limited nature of the present investigation and scientific studies. However, the
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present evidence clearly suggests that the late Pleistocene microlith using communities
of this area procured red ochre raw material from distant sources, while they exploited
locally available chert and other raw material sources for manufacturing lithic tools.
Use of red ochre is frequently attributed to ritualistic and/or utilitarian behaviour of the
modern hominins. Future investigation from multidisciplinary perspectives will
definitely shed more light on the symbolic as well as cognitive abilities of late Middle
Palaeolithic hominins of the Bargarh upland of Odisha.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the Sambalpur
University and to the Archaeological Survey of India for providing license that allowed
conducting fieldwork at Torajunga in different field seasons. We would like to extend
hearty thanks to research scholars and Post Graduate students of the P.G. Department
of History, Sambalpur University for their unflinching help and cooperation during the
fieldwork without which this paper could never have been completed.
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