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Mesoscopic Injection Solar Cells for ElectricityGeneration from Sunlight
Michael GraetzelSwiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne
International Materials ForumBayreuth Germany August 1-2, 2005
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• Nanocrystalline Films: Dr. L. Cevey, Pascal Comte, Francine Duriaux- Arendse, Raphael Charvet, Dr.Carole Graetzel, Peter Chen
• Dye Research: Dr. M. K. Nazeeruddin, Dr. S. M. Zakeeruddin, Dr.Cédric Klein, Dr. Nick Evans Dr. Peter Pechy, Anthony Burke
• PV cells : Dr. Peng Wang. Dr. Lukas Schmidt-Mende, Dr.P. Liska, Dr. Seigo Ito, Takeru Bessho, Dr. Robin
Humphry-Baker, Nathalie Rossier, Dr. Henry Snaith• Electrochemistry: Dr. Qing Wang, Dr. Davide Dicenso, Ilkay Cesar, Shipan Zhang• Electron transfer: Dr. Jacques-E.Moser, Bernard Wenger, Dr.
K.Kalyanasundaram• Modeling, analysis Dr. Guido Rothenberger, Dr Pierre Infelta, Dr.
François Rotzinger• DFT calculations: Filippo De Angelis, Simona Fantacci (Perugia), Annabella
Selloni (Princeton).We are grateful for funding from:
The Swiss Top Nano-21program,The Swiss Energy OfficeSwiss National Science FoundationUS Air Force (European Office of Aerospace Research and Development)European Joule Projects (NANOMAX, MOLYCELL) , European Cost D14Industrial Partners,
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Humanity’s Top Ten Problemsfor next 50 years
1. ENERGY2. WATER3. FOOD4. ENVIRONMENT5. POVERTY6. TERRORISM & WAR7. DISEASE8. EDUCATION9. DEMOCRACY10. POPULATION
2003 6.3 Billion People2050 8-10 Billion People
Source Richard Smalley Energy & Nanotechnology ConferenceRice University, Houston May 3, 2003
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THE SOLAR CHALLENGE
● With a projected global population of 12 billion by 2050 coupled with moderate economic growth, the total global energy consumption is estimated to be ~28 TW. Current global use is ~11 TW.
● To cap CO2 at 550 ppm (twice the pre-industrial level),most of this additional energy needs to come from carbon-free sources.
● Solar energy is the largest non-carbon-based energysource (100,000 TW).
● However, it has to be converted at reasonably low cost.
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0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Sola
r P
hoto
n F
lux (
mA
/cm
2
.eV
)
Energy (eV)
6000K BB integrated current
AM1.5G integrated current
6000K Blackbody Spectrum
100 mW/cm2
!(E) = AM1.5G Solar Spectrum
100 mW/cm2
Inte
gra
ted p
hoto
n flu
x (
mA
/cm
2
)
Solar Spectrum and Available PhotocurrentTHE SOLAR RESOURCE
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Photovoltaic CellsI. 1st Generation
• Single crystal Si• Poly-grain Si
II. 2nd Generation (Low Cost--Mainly Thin Films)• Amorphous Si• Thin film Si• CuInSe2• CdTe• Dye-sensitized Photochemical Cell• Organic PV (molecular and polymeric)
III. 3rd Generation (ntheor>31%(the Queisser-Shockley limit))• (High efficiency multi-gap tandem cells (already here))• Hot electron converters• Carrier Multiplication cells• Mid-band PV• Quantum Dot Solar Cells• Other approaches
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Photovoltaic market growth projection until 2030
300 GW/Year@ 2030
30 % p.a.
25 % p.a.
Courtesy Dr. Winfried Hoffman, CEO, RWE, SCHOTT Solar GmbH
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PRESENT PV TECHNOLOGY
(Dominated by semiconductor p-njunctions)
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e-
usable photo-voltage (qV)
Energy
e-
n-typep-type
1 e- - h+ pair/photon; full hot carrier relaxation
ηmax = 32%
(in radiative limit)heat loss
heat loss
hν
Conventional Single Conventional Single HomojunctionHomojunction PV Cell PV Cell
h+
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Production Forecast of Solar Modules Using DifferentTechnologies
2010 (Forecast)
Jp 1.200EU 1.000US 500SOA 500ROW 500Σ 3.700
MW GW30%p.a. 25%p.a.
Courtesy Dr. Winfried Hoffman, CEO, RWE, SCHOTT Solar GmbH
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Market Size in 2030 for the four market segments
Rural Electrification
60 GWp p.a.On-Grid
150 GWp p.a.
Consumer
20 GWp p.a.
Off-Grid Industrial
70 GWp p.a.
Total 300 GWp⇒ 200 bio €
Modul Turnover in 2030
Courtesy Dr. Winfried Hoffman, CEO, RWE, SCHOTT Solar GmbH
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Emerging and new applications call for:
• colour• flexibility• light weight• easy of integration• many more
... further development and new technologies inorder to meet optimally the customer demandsand needs
Courtesy Dr. Winfried Hoffman, CEO, RWE, SCHOTT Solar GmbH
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Band Diagram
Mesoscopic Injection Solar Cells
Scheme
M. Grätzel, Nature 2001, 414, 338−344
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I3-
3I-
Sensitized Sensitized mesoscopic heterojuntionsmesoscopic heterojuntions
TiO2
hhννTi-
Ti-
3I-/I3-
N
N
N
N N
Ru
N
OHO
O
HO
C
C
O
HO
OHO
S
S
e-
e-
hhνν Ion Diffusion
DyeEVB
ECB
S+/S
S+/S*
M. Grätzel, Nature 2001, 414, 338−344.
B. O’Regan, M. Grätzel, Nature 1991, 353, 737−740
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Device Concept: Device Concept: ““solid-statesolid-state””
hhννHole Hopping
η = 4 % @ 1 Sun
spiro-MeOTAD
U. Bach, D. Lupo, P. Comte, J.-E. Moser, F. Weissörtel, J. Salbeck, H.Spreitzer and M. Grätzel, NATURE 395, 583-585 (1998)
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R.D. Schaller and V.I. Klimov, Phys. Rev. Letts, 92,186601 (May), 2004 (PbSe QDs)
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1 percolation of electrons and holes2 selective contacts3 no electrical shunts (pinholes)4 stoichiometric TiO2 5 p-type CuInS2
6 buffer layer7 intimate contact8 complete filling of pores
3D solar cells
M. Nanu, J. Schoonman, and A. Goossens, Advanced Materials 16 (2004) 453M. Nanu, J. Schoonman, and A. Goossens, Adv. Func. Mat. 15 (2005) 95
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Bulk organic heterojunction solar cell
Glass
PEDOT:PSS
Active layer
LiF
AluminumSMU
+-
ITO
Illumination
conductingpolymer
Alpolymer / fullereneblend
TCO
-+
O
OMe
PCBM blended with:
JSC = 9.3 mA/cm2
VOC = 0.56 VFF = 60%η = 3.5%
OC1C10-PPV
O
O
(
)n
S
S
n
JSC = 5.3 mA/cm2
VOC = 0.82 VFF = 61%η = 2.5%
(under AM1.5 illumination)
P3HT
0.6
0.4
0.2
Quantu
m E
ffic
iency
800700600500400
Wavelength (nm)
0.3 s integration, 7 counts 1.0 s integration, 9 counts
From G. Rumbles NREL
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Outline
• Mesoporous junctions, interfacial and cross-surface charge transfer
• Photoinduced charge separation• Photogalvanic generation of electricity from
sunlight
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Mesoscopic semiconductor filmsexhibit extraordinary properties
• surface amplification ca 100 times for eachmicron film thickness
• Interpenetrating network electronic junctionhaving huge contact area
• ease of electron percolation through the particlenetwork
• very rapid lithium insertion and release• high photocatalytic activity• high sensitivity for detecting ambients• efficient photovoltaic energy conversion
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Rapid electron percolation through nanocrystalsRapid electron percolation through nanocrystals
+ ++
+
+
+
+++
+-- -
-- -
--
--
+
-
Charge of electrons compensated by inert positive ions in electrolyte
µµee
G. Rothenberger, M Grätzel and D Fitzmaurice, J.Phys Chem.1992,96,5983
No space charge limitation of current !
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Kavan M. Grätzel Electrochemical and Solid State Letters 5 (2): A39-42 (2002)
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Cross surface electron and holetransfer in self-assembled molecular
charge transport layers
Molecular wiring of insulating Nanocrystals
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Ambipolar lateral charge percolationin self-assembled monolayers on
nanocrystalline insulator films
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Z907 sensitizer
P.Wang, S.M. Zakeeruddin, R. Humphry-Baker, J.-E. Moser, M. GrätzelAdv. Materials, 15, No. 24, 2101-2104 (2003)
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HOMO LUMO
A. Hagfeldt, M. Grätzel, Acc. Chem. Res. 2000, 33, 2679−27
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Cyclic Voltammogram of Z 907 on Aluminium Oxide Film
Electrolyte; EMITFSI in Acetonitrile, Scan rate= 0.1V Sec-1
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Cross surface hole percolation through a self-assembled Z-907 monolayeradsorbed on mesoscopic anatase TiO2.
QING WANG, ROBIN HUMPHRY BAKER AND MICHAEL GRAETZEL to be submitted
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Cyclic voltammogram of the N621 complex anchored onto aTiO2 electrode (black line), exposed to the solutions of HgCl2
(red dashed dotted line) and Pb(ClO4)2 (blue dashed line)
600x10-6
400
200
0
-200
-400
i / A
1.41.21.00.80.60.40.2
E / V vs. Ag QRE
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Molecular structure of the N719-HgCl2 complex showing the asymmetric unit which contains one mercury atom, and two Cl– anions
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Outline
• Mesoscopic junctions, interfacial and cross surfacecharge transfer
• Photoinduced charge separation• Photogalvanic generation of electricity from
sunlight
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Silicon Photovoltaic Cells Dye Solar Cells
Charge separation by electricfield within a p- and n-dopedsemiconductor material (Si, II-VI, a-Si: H)
Charge separation by kineticcompetition like inphotosynthesis
EF
p-Si (B)[CdTe]
D/D+
e--R
n-Si (P)[CdS]
hν hν
D*/D+TiO2
Electrolyte
Dye
cb
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The two dilemmas of light harvesting bysurface immobilized molecular absorbers
1. A monolayer of dye on a flat surface absorbs at mosta few percent of light because it occupies an area that ismuch larger than its optical cross section
2. Compact semiconductor films need to be n-doped toconduct electrons. Energy transfer quenching of theexcited sensitizer by the electrons in the semiconductorleads to conversion of light to heat reducingphotovoltaic conversion efficiency.
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Anatase crystals
• Undoped crystal,(001) surface
• Doped crystal,(101) surface
A. Vittadini, A. Selloni, F. Rotzinger and M. Grätzel Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 2954 (1998)
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Incident photon to electron conversion efficiency (IPCE)of a dye-sensitized TiO2 (101) single crystal PEC solar cell
IPCEmax = 0.13 %
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IPCEmax = 88 %
Incident photon to current conversion efficiency of a dye-sensitized solar cell based on a mesoscopic TiO2electrode
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Dye sensitized nanocrystalsshow quantitative conversionof the photons into electriccurrent
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Competition ⇒
Electron diffusion length
Dynamic CompetitionDynamic Competition
electron transport
loss mechanism:interfacial
recombination
!
Ln= "Dn τn
electron injection
dye regeneration
electron transport
interfacialrecombination
time [s]
τn: electron lifetimeDn: electron diffusion coefficient
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Photo Induced Heterogeneous ElectronTransfer Cycle
N
N
Ru
C
C
O
- O
- O
O
OXIDE
Tis4+
–
–
– MLCT EXCITATION
forward reaction
Backward transfer
–
–
–
Ru (II/III)
dxy, dxz, dyz
!LIGAND *ORBITAL
h ! (" 1.7 eV)
kf
Ti 4+/3+
spatial contraction of d orbitals upon
oxidation from Ru(II) to Ru(III)
Energy
kb
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Finite length transmission model (Bisquert)
Chemical Capacitance
Transport
Recombination
Q Wang, J. Moser and M. Graetzel J.Phys. Chem B in press
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Electron Transport: Diffusion and Electron Lifetime
e-
e-I3-
Electrons should travel to the SnO2before charge recombination occurs
Diffusion length should exceed thethickness of the mesoscopic TiO2 film
!DL =
SnO2:F TiO2/Electrolyte
10~20 µm
Charge recombination2 e- + I3- = 3I-
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Increasing the injection and lowering the recombination rates
is critical for maximizing the open circuit voltage of the cell !
Voc = (nRT/F)ln(KΦ/(k1[S+] +k2[D+])
KΦ : charge carrier photo-generation rate
k1, k2: recombination rate constants
n: ideality factor of the junction
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-15
-10
-5
0
Cu
rren
t D
en
sity
[mA
/cm
2]
0.80.60.40.20.0Potential [V]
•
100% AM1.5Efficiency 11.04%
•65% AM1.5
•9.5% AM1.5
Efficiency 11.18%
Efficiency 10.87%
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STABILITYRequirements for outdoor use according tointernational PV standards applied to single crystalsilicon but so far not to thin film PV cells
UV plus heat (55-60 C): 1000 hours
Accelerated thermal test at 85 C: 1000 h
Humidity test and temperature cycling (sealingissues)
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Self-assembly of stable and welldefined monomolecular layers ofsensitizer at the interface provideslong term photovoltaic stability andhigh conversion efficiency
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Interface Engineering Interface Engineering in Dye-Sensitised Solar Cellsin Dye-Sensitised Solar Cells
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ROBUSTElectrolyte
PMII: 0.8 M
I2: 0.15 M
NMBI: 0.5 M
0.1 M GSCN
MPN solvent
Efficiency: > 8.0%
Photoanode: 8+5K-19
Decylphosphonate
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80 oC evolution of device parameters in the dark
Wang, P.; Klein, C.; Humphry-Baker, R.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Grätzel, M. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2005, 86. 123508.
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60 oC evolution of device parameters under one sun soaking
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SOLVENT-FREE SYSTEMS
SOLID (POLYMER)ELECTROLYTES,SOLIDIFIED IONIC LIQUIDSHOLE CONDUCTORS
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Ionic solid electrolytes
P. Wang, S.M. Zakeeruddin, P. Comte, I. Exnar, and M. GrätzelPeng Wang et al J. Am. Chem. Soc 2003, 125, 1166-1167
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Consists of only IonsLiquid under wide temp. range ex. -10℃ to 400℃non volatileChemically stable and non combustibleHigh electronic conductivity
NNCH2CH3H3C
+
O
F3C-
SS N CF3
OO
O
1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium - Bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)Amide
EMIm-TFSA
Features of Ionic LiquidsION-GEL Electolyte (NEDO)
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Nano composite Ion Gel
EMIm-TFSA + TiO2 (P25, 10 wt% )
Centrifugal separation2000 G (6400 rpm) x 1hr
Ionic liquid
TiO2nano
composite gel
I2 content
References(1) T.Fukushima, A.Kosaka, Y.Ishimura, T.Yamamoto, T.Takigawa, N.Ishii and
T.Aida, Science, 27(2003)2072.(2) P.Wang, S.M.Zakeeruddin, P.Comte, I.Exnar and M.Graetzel, J.Am.Chem.Soc.,
125(2003)1166
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Fig. I-V characteristics of nano composite ion gel cell and bare ionic liquid cell
4.80.5770612.0MW-CNT
5.80.6471912.5SiO2
4.70.6066111.8withoutparticles
5.10.6068512.5ITO5.00.6167912.1SnO2
5.70.6569612.5TiO2
η(%)
FFVoc
(mV)Jsc
(mA/cm2)nano
particles
Table PV performance of nanocomposite
ion gel cells
TiO2 (P25); anatase, 28nm
-5
0
5
10
15
0 200 400 600 800
Voltage (mV)
Cu
rre
nt d
en
sity (
mA
/cm
2)
Ionic liquidEMIm-TFSA η = 4.7 %
TiO2 Nanocomposite gel
η = 5.7 %
Influence of Nano Particles
Courtesy of Dr. Nobuo Tanabe Fujikura Ltd
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Dye /TiO2 layer
Nanocompositelayer
Photoelectrode Counterelectrode
Grotthus-like exchange mechanism
Nanoparticle
Iodide ion (I-)
Tri-iodide ion (I3-)
Charge transfer path
Imidazolium cation
e-
I3- I-
Charge transportationin nano composite gel
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Chem.Commun. 2005,363-365
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Viscosity: 900 cp at 22 oC
Viscosity: 18 cp at 22 oC
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Photovoltaic performance
7.7%
Wang, P.; Klein, C.; Humphry-Baker, R.; Zakeeruddin, S.M. andGrätzel.M. J. Am. Chem Soc. 2005, 127, 808.
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Evolution of device parameters using quasi-solid ionic liquidgel electrolyte under one Sun light soaking at 60 oC
NH
HN
HN
O
O
C14H29
PMII/EMINCS: 65:35 (volume)
I2: 0.2 M
NMBI: 0.5 M
GuNCS: 0.1 M
Gelator: 2 wt %
Gelator
0 10 20 30 40 504
6
8
10
12
14
Time (d)
! (
%)
J s c
mA
cm
- 2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
ffV
o
c (V)
Dye K19+DPA
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N
N
N
N
Ru
NCS
NCS
OHO
OH
O
O
O
O
O O
O
O
O
Ion coordinating sensitizers
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Immobilization of Li Ions
K51
Z907Z907
K51
no Li × 10
Li hugely increases Jdensity
No longer space-charge limited current.
K51 immobilizes ionson dye backbone.
N
N
N
N
Ru
NCS
NCS
ONaO
OH
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
Li+
Li+
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 0.5 1 1.5
Cur
rent
Den
sity
(mA
cm-2
)
Applied Bias (V)
56789
10
20
30
40
0.1 1 10 100
Curr
ent D
ensi
ty (m
Acm
-2)
Time (S)
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Temperature Dependence
Increased charge mobility with temperature ↑ current and fill factor
Increased charge recombination ↓ voltage and current
For K51 ↑ mobility wins. For Z907 ↑ charge recombination wins
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
00 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
K51 device 291278274264250240230220210200
Cur
rent
Den
sity
(mA
cm-2
)
Applied Bias (V)0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Z907 device 293283276263253235225215204200
Applied Bias (V)
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Transient Voltage Decay’s
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Nor
mal
ized
ΔV
Time(mS)
Lifetime(ms)0.45K510.32Z9070.03K51 no Li0.01No Dye/Li
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Advantages vs. Silicon Cells• Low cost and ease of production• Performance increases with temperature narrowing the
efficiency gap• Bifacial configuration - advantage for diffuse light and
albedo• Efficiency less sensitive to angle of incidence• Transparency for power windows• Color can be varied by selection of the dye, invisible PV-cells
based on near-IR sensitizers are feasable• Low energy content (for silicon this is 5 GJ/m2 !), payback
time is only a few months as compared to years for silicon.• Outperforms amorphous Si
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UltimateThermodynamic
limit at 1 sun
min BOS
Shockley-Queisser limit
PV Power Costs as Functionof Module Efficiency and Cost From Martin Green
For PV to provide the full level of C-free energy required for electricity andfuel—solar power cost needs to be ~5 cents/kWh ($1.00 Wp)
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Courtesy of Greatcell Solar
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Various colours in a series-connected dye solar cell module
Courtesy Dr. Winfried Hoffman, CEO, RWE, SCHOTT Solar GmbH
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Hitachi’s new dye sensitized cell achieves 9.3 percent efficiency
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DSCmade by
AISIN -SEIKI http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/04/Dec/nt04_1204.html
The Toyota Dream House
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Future Generation PV TechnologiesFuture Generation PV Technologies• Opportunities for innovation– ultra low
cost, ultra high efficiencies, newmaterials, new chemistry,new physics- Photoelectrochemistry- Excitonic cells (dye cells,semiconducting polymers, molecularsemiconductors)- Quantum dot cells; hot-carrier andimpurity band cells; photon tailoring
Ideal StructureIdeal Structure
GlassMo
NanoparticulateCIGSprecursormaterials
From T. Surek
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Integration of Photosynthetic Protein Molecular Complexes in Solid-State Electronic DevicesRupa Das, Patrick J. Kiley, Michael Segal, Julie Norville, A. Amy Yu, Leyu Wang, Scott A. Trammell, L. Evan Reddick, Rajay Kumar, Francesco Stellacci, Nikolai Lebedev, Joel Schnur, Barry D. Bruce, Shuguang Zhang, and Marc BaldoNanoletters 2004, vol 4, pp 1079 - 1083;
Can laptops run on spinach ?
Spinach photosynthetic power can create electricity.