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Memory “Learning is the process by which
we acquire knowledge about the world, while memory is the process by which that knowledge is encoded, stored and later retrieved.” Eric Kandel
Computer-based model
Memory “Learning refers to the process by which
experiences change our nervous system and hence our behaviour. We refer to these changes as memory… Experiences are not ‘stored’, rather they change the way we perceive, perform, think and plan. They do so by physically changing the structure of the nervous system, altering neural circuits that participate in perceiving, performing, thinking and planning.” Neil Carlson
Learning and Memory Task Verbal Paired Associates
Get a piece of paper and pen. Write 1 to 8 down the left side.
Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
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Atkinson and Shifrin’s model
receptors
Iconic/Echoic
Sensory registers
recoding STM LTM
rehearsal
~1s 1-~5s unlimited
Sensory Memory Short-Term/Working Memory
Short-Term Memory
Declarative(Explicit)
Nondeclarative(Implicit)
Long-Term Memory
Memory
STM is Limited
I’m going to read 16 numbers out loud. After listening to the numbers, you will be asked to recall as many as you can in the correct order.
STM is Limited
1 8 6 7 1 8 1 2 1 4 9 2 2 0 0 3
STM is Limited
Now I’m going to read four dates out loud, saying each number individually. The first three years (12 numbers) are important dates in history and the last year is the current year. After listening, you will be asked to recall as many of the numbers in the correct order as possible.
STM is Limited
Memory span. Only about 7 items (plus or minus 2) can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).
Learn these:
MTY
Rapid decay
Count backwards from 108 in 7’s
What were the three letters?
MTY
STM is Limited
Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).
Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented. For example, phone numbers are “lost” if
interrupted while rehearsing
Serial position effect
Learn this list
Serial position effect
Limes, eggs, crackers, vanilla, radish, ketchup, soup, cereal, peas, syrup, cheese, potato, pork, carrots
Serial position effect
Write down as many as you can remember.
Serial position effect How many students included:
Limes ____
Eggs _____
Crackers _____
Vanilla ______
Radish ______
Ketchup ______
Soup _____
Cereal _____
Peas _____
Syrup _____
Cheese _____
Potato _____
Pork _____
Carrots _____
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STM is Limited
Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).
Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented.
Recency in free recall. This is eliminated after 30s of interference (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966).
STM is Limited
Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).
Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented.
Recency in free recall. This is eliminated after 30s of interference (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966).
All these measures suggest that a limited amount of
recent information can be stored temporarily.
Acoustic Similarity on STM
Learn this list:
D V E T G P C
Acoustic similarity on STM
Write down the sequence
Acoustic similarity D V E T G P C
Memorize this sequence:
K R T H D S W
Acoustic similarity Which was more difficult?
DVETGPCor
KRTHDSW
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Long-term memory Not capacity limited Different types/divisions such as
implicit versus explicit
Events(Episodic)
Facts(Semantic)
Declarative(Explicit)
Nondeclarative(Implicit)
Long-Term Memory
Sensory Memory Short-Term/Working Memory
Short-Term Memory
MemoryType title here
Specific personalexperiences from
a particulartime and place
Events(Episodic)
world knowledgeobject knowledge
language knowledge
Facts(Semantic)
Declarative(Explicit)
Nondeclarative(Implicit)
Long-Term Memory
Sensory Memory Short-Term/Working Memory
Short-Term Memory
MemoryType title here
Specific personalexperiences from
a particulartime and place
Events(Episodic)
world knowledgeobject knowledge
language knowledge
Facts(Semantic)
Declarative(Explicit)
Procedural Perceptualrepresentation
system
ClassicalConditioning
Nonassociativelearning
Nondeclarative(Implicit)
Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory
MemoryType title here
Specific personalexperiences from
a particulartime and place
Events(Episodic)
world knowledgeobject knowledge
language knowledge
Facts(Semantic)
Declarative(Explicit)
Skills(Motor andCognitive)
Procedural
Perceptualpriming
Perceptualrepresentation
system
Conditionedresponse toconditioned
stimulus
ClassicalConditioning
Habituationsensitization
Nonassociativelearning
Nondeclarative(Implicit)
Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory
MemoryType title here
Explicit vs implicit memory
Techniques for investigation Explicit
Free recall Cued recall (e.g. paired associates) Recognition
Implicit (vs incidental) Skills (savings on relearning)
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Semantic vs Episodic memory (Tulving)
‘LTM’ Landauer and Freedman, 1968; Collins and Quillian,1969
Bird (has feathers, can fly)
Canary (can sing)
Animal (breathes, moves)
Alsatian (large, fierce)
Dog (has fur, barks)
Typicality
Is this a bird?RobinSparrowDuckOstrichAeroplane Good exemplars are quicker
Negative exemplars
Is this a fruit?CherryCarrotBrick Usually slower than positive
exemplars Slowest if share common attributes
Proximity to boundary
Typical(Robin)
Borderline(Aeroplane)
Close negative(Rabbit)
Atypical(Ostrich)
Distant negative(House)
Rea
ctio
n ti
me
Proximity to boundary
Typical(Robin)
Borderline(Aeroplane)
Close negative(Rabbit)
Atypical(Ostrich)
Distant negative(House)
Rea
ctio
n ti
me Schizophrenic patients
Is this a bird?
3 Processes of LTM Encoding: information is processed prior to
storage Storage: the information is preserved in
some form Retrieval: the information is recovered and
reported Forgetting may be due to deficiencies in
any of the these three key processes
Encoding Encoding is an active process
Selective attention “next-in-line effect”
Levels of processing Qualitative differences in how people
attend to information Three progressive levels (Craik &
Lockhart, 1972)
Encoding: Levels of Processing Shallow processing
Structure encoding “Is the word written in capital letters?”
Intermediate processing Phonemic encoding “Does the word rhyme with weight?”
Deep processing Semantic encoding
Encoding: Levels of Processing
Deep processing Semantic encoding Elaboration
Linking stimulus to other information at time of encoding
Examples that illustrate an idea
Encoding: Levels of Processing
Deep processing Semantic encoding Elaboration
Linking stimulus to other information at time of encoding
Examples that illustrate an idea Visual imagery
Encoding: Levels of Processing
Deep processing Semantic encoding Elaboration
Linking stimulus to other information at time of encoding
Examples that illustrate an idea Visual imagery Self-referent encoding
Deciding how or whether the info is personally relevant
Levels of Processing Theory
The deeper the level of processing, the longer and more durable the memories will be.
Problems How do we define “level”? How do we determine whether one
level is deeper than another?
Visual Imagery: dual code theory
Paivio (1971) proposed that imagery and verbal memory were two independent ways of remembering an item. This is supported by the fact that: Concrete words are remembered better than abstract words Pictures are remembered better than words.
Suppose you wanted to remember the following list Elephant Flower Desk Cold Key Duck Boat
HighTeaGloves
MnemonicsOne is a bunTwo is a shoeThree is a treeFour is a doorFive is a hiveSix is sticksSeven is heavenEight is a plateNine is a mine
One is a bun
elephant
Two is a shoe
flower
Three is a tree
desk
Four is a door
cold
Five is a hive
key
Six is sticks
duck
Seven is heaven
boat
Eight is a plate
high
Nine is a mine
tea
Ten is a hen
gloves
How many can you remember?
One is a bunTwo is a shoeThree is a treeFour is a doorFive is a hiveSix is sticksSeven is heavenEight is a plateNine is a mineTen is a hen
Mnemonics
Storage “bare bones” not “exact replica” of
event
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? clustering
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? Clustering
Tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy
Multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
Example of A Conceptual Hierarchy
Specific personalexperiences from
a particulartime and place
Events(Episodic)
world knowledgeobject knowledge
language knowledge
Facts(Semantic)
Declarative(Explicit)
Skills(Motor andCognitive)
Procedural
Perceptualpriming
Perceptualrepresentation
system
Conditionedresponse toconditioned
stimulus
ClassicalConditioning
Habituationsensitization
Nonassociativelearning
Nondeclarative(Implicit)
Long-Term Memory Short-Term Memory
MemoryType title here
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas
Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience
More likely to remember things consistent with your schema
Professor Smith’s Office Write down what you saw
in the office.
Professor Smith’s Office What did you see?
Desks Chairs Books Filing cabinets Wine bottle Picnic table
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas Scripts
A kind of schema Organizes what people know about
common activities
Script
“The procedure is actually quite simple. First arrange things into different bundles depending on make-up. Don’t do too much at once. In the short run this may not seem important, however, complications easily arise. A mistake can be costly. Next, find facilities. Some people must go elsewhere for them. Manipulation of appropriate mechanisms should be self-explanatory. Remember to include all other necessary supplies.
Script cont.
“Initially the routine will overwhelm you, but soon it will become just another facet of life. Finally, rearrange everything into their initial groups. Return these to their usual places. Eventually they will be used again. Then the whole cycle will have to be repeated.”
Storage How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory? Clustering Conceptual hierarchy Schemas Scripts Semantic networks
Nodes representing concepts that are joined
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Retrieval: Getting Info Out Encoding specificity principle
(Tulving) Any stimulus that is encoded along with
the experience can later trigger memory Context cues
State-dependent memory Match between internal states during
encoding and recall Semantic network
Retrieval Memories are reconstructions of
the past May be distorted
To fit with own established schemas May include details that did not
actually occur
Retrieval
Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted
To fit with own established schemas May include details that did not actually
occur Source monitoring errors
(misattributions) Mix up fictional info from movies and novels
with factual information from news reports and personal experience
Retrieval
Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted May include details that did not actually
occur Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
Reality monitoring errors Memories based on external or internal sources “Did I turn off the stove or did I imagine doing it?”
Retrieval
Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted May include details that did not
actually occur Source monitoring errors
(misattributions) Schema/scripts
Retrieval
Memories are reconstructions of the past May be distorted May include details that did not actually
occur Source monitoring errors (misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – limited attention to
details
Retrieval Memories are reconstructions:
May be distorted May include details that did not actually
occur Source monitoring errors
(misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – no attention to details suggestibility
Say each word out loud:•Nice
•Honey
•Soda
•Chocolate
•Heart
•Cake
•Tart
•Tooth
•pie
•Sour
•Candy
•Sugar
•Bitter
•Good
•Taste
Write down the words you remember
Did you remember: Candy? Honey? Tooth? Sweet? Pie?
Memories are reconstructions:
May be distorted May include details that did not
actually occur Source monitoring errors
(misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – no attention to
details
AP/Wide World Photos
Memories are reconstructions:
May be distorted May include details that did not actually
occur Source monitoring errors (misattributions) Schema/scripts Categorization – no attention to details Suggestibility Memory bias
To be consistent with current beliefs or attitudes
Repressed Memories
Some recovered memory incidents have been substantiated by independent witnesses or belated admissions of guilt from the accused.
Vast majority have vehemently denied allegations of abuse and independent corroboration not available.
Repressed Memories
Sexual abuse is more widespread than most people realize.
Common for people to bury traumatic incidents.
Misinformation effect Hypnotic pseudomemory Suggestibility Source-monitoring errors
Caused by deficiencies in encoding, storage, retrieval or some combination Ineffective coding
Shallow encoding absentmindedness
Pseudoforgetting Lack of attention
Interference
Forgetting
Interference Blocking Proactive interference
Prior info prevents learning of new info Retroactive interference
New info interferes with ability to remember old info
Forgetting
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The Physiology of Memory Biochemistry of memory Neural circuitry of memory Anatomy of memory
Biochemistry of memory Alterations in synaptic transmissions
Increase or decrease in release of neurotransmitters
Epinephrine Induces state of arousal Acts through glucose
Opiates and alcohol Depress neuronal activity Interferes with memory
Neural Circuitry of memory Long-term potentiation creates
localized neural circuits
Anatomy of memory Amygdala
“emotional memory” Alteration of hormonal and
neurotransmitter release due to stress Hippocampus
“consolidation” Functions to bind together individual elements
of a specific memory which are stored in widely distributed areas of the cortex
Contextual learning Spatial memory
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Hippocampal Formation
Anatomy of Memory Frontal lobes
Working memory Hold information in working memory
(“on-line”) to allow comparisons, problem solving, follow conversations etc.
Temporal sequences Which event happened first
Anatomy of Memory Hemispheric differences
Left hemisphere Verbal information
Right hemisphere Non-verbal information