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• The starting point for the research design is, in fact, the research questions and hypotheses that have been so carefully developed.
• The next step after stating the management problem, research purpose, and research hypotheses and questions, is to formulate a research design.
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Research Design
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Chapter 3
Research Design
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Research Design
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Research Design?• The research design is a plan of action
indicating the specific steps that are necessary to provide answers to those questions, test the hypotheses, and thereby achieve the research purpose that helps choose among the decision alternatives to solve the management problem or capitalize on the market opportunity.
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Research Design?• The research
design answers the question: How are we going to get answers to these research questions and test these hypotheses?
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Research Design?• The research design has been
considered a "blueprint" for research, dealing with at least four problems: what questions to study, what data are relevant, what data to collect, and how to analyze the results.
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Research Design?• According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin,
• "A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be served."
• According to Kerlinger• "Research design in the plan, structure and strategy
of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance."
• According to Green and Tull • "A research design is the specification of methods
and procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures."
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Research Design?• Research design can be divided into fixed and
flexible research designs (Robson, 1993).
• Others have referred to this distinction with “quantitative research designs” and “qualitative research designs”.
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Fixed (Quantitative) Designs
• In quantitative research your aim is to determine the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population.
• Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once) or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment).
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Descriptive Research• Descriptive research design is a scientific
method which involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied.
• The idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation.
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Experimental Research• Experimental
research is defined essentially as research in which the causal (independent) variable(s) can be manipulated in order to change an effect.
• Because of this element of manipulation, researchers in using experimental methods are expected to maintain a good degree of control throughout the period of the study to establish with confidence that cause and effect occurred.
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Flexible (Qualitative) Designs
• Qualitative research seeks out the ‘why’, not the ‘how’ of its topic through the analysis of unstructured information – things like interview transcripts, open ended survey responses, emails, notes, feedback forms, photos and videos. It doesn’t just rely on statistics or numbers, which are the domain of quantitative researchers.
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Case Study• This method of study is especially useful for
trying to test theoretical models by using them in real world situations.• Basically, a case study is an in-depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one easily researchable topic.
• The case study research design is also useful for testing whether scientific theories and models actually work in the real world. You may come out with a great computer model for describing how the ecosystem of a rock pool works but it is only by trying it out on a real life pool that you can see if it is a realistic simulation.
• Rather than quantifying norms, as in quantitative research, qualitative research provides a rich understanding of individual differences, often providing complex answers to "how" and "why." A single person is studied in a case study. A holistic picture of the person is obtained when information is collected about the person's history, people who know the person are interviewed, and, if possible, the person of study is interviewed.
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• One way to do this is to participate as a member of the group. When this is done, it is called "Participant-observation." As a "Participant-observer," the researcher studies the group from the inside as a member. “Naturalistic Observation” yields rich information about how a society lives.
Naturalistic Observation
• Also known as "Ethnography," is a qualitative research method involving the study of a group of people in their natural setting. The researcher tries to study the people without affecting their behavior. MELJUN CORTES
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Focus Groups• When people are available to provide information,
a focus group may be used. A focus group is a group of people gathered together to discuss a certain issue, and it is anotherway of conducting
qualitative research. •A focus group involves a small number of people, who are usually hired, meeting and discussing the benefits and shortcomings of a particular product, issue or event. The people chosen for the focus group share qualities relevant to the topic of research.
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Surveys• Another dimension of study is the use of surveys.
This qualitative research method can be conducted in person or via mail, e-mail, or the telephone.
• Surveys provide a way for researchers to obtain a lot of information from a large number of people. And, they allow respondents to communicate their opinions, feelings, and personal information anonymously.
• Many surveys include a Likert scale, which includes rating statements on a scale of how much one agrees or disagrees. While others have open-ended questions for respondents to include their opinions and comments. Information obtained from surveys can provide data needed to begin a quantitative, empirical research experiment.
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Chapter 3
Research Design
Respondents of the Study
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Respondents of the StudyMELJUN CORTES
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Chapter 3
Research Design
Respondents of the Study
Sampling technique
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Sampling TechniqueMELJUN CORTES
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Sampling• In statistics and survey methodology,
sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population
• The selection of a suitable sample for study.
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Sampling TechniquesMELJUN CORTES
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Random Sampling• The first statistical sampling method
is simple random sampling. In this method, each item in the population has the same probability of being selected as part of the sample as any other item.
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Random Sampling• For example, a tester could randomly
select 5 inputs to a test case from the population of all possible valid inputs within a range of 1-100 to use during test execution, To do this the tester could use a random number generator or simply put each number from 1-100 on a slip of paper in a hat, mixing them up and drawing out 5 numbers.
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Systematic Sampling• Systematic sampling is another
statistical sampling method. In this method, every nth element from the list is selected as the sample, starting with a sample element n randomly selected from the first k elements.
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Systematic Sampling• The population has
1000 elements and a sample size of 100 is needed.
• Then k would be 1000/100 = 10.
• If number 7 is randomly selected from the first ten elements on the list, the sample would continue down the list selecting the 7th element from each group of ten elements.
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Stratified Sampling• The statistical sampling method called
stratified sampling is used when representatives from each subgroup within the population need to be represented in the sample.
• Random or systematic samples are then taken from each subgroup. The sampling fraction for each subgroup may be taken in the same proportion as the subgroup has in the population.
• The first step in stratified sampling is to divide the population into subgroups (strata) based on mutually exclusive criteria.
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Stratified Sampling• For example, if the person conducting a customer
satisfaction survey selected random customers from each customer type in proportion to the number of customers of that type in the population.
– For example, if 40 samples are to be selected, and 10% of the customers are managers, 60% are users, 25% are operators and 5% are database administrators then 4 managers, 24 uses, 10 operators and 2 administrators would be randomly selected. Stratified sampling can also sample an equal number of items from each subgroup. For example, a development lead randomly selected three modules out of each programming language used to examine against the coding standard
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Cluster Sampling• In cluster sampling,
the population that is being sampled is divided into groups called clusters. Instead of these subgroups being homogeneous based on a selected criteria as in stratified sampling, a cluster is as heterogeneous as possible to matching the population.
• A random sample is then taken from within one or more selected clusters.
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Haphazard Sampling• There are also other types of
sampling that, while non-statistical (information about the entire population cannot be extrapolated from the sample), may still provide useful information.
• In haphazard sampling, samples are selected based on convenience but preferably should still be chosen as randomly as possible.
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Haphazard Sampling• For example, the auditor may ask to
see a list of all of the source code modules, and then closes his eyes and points at the list to select a module to audit.
• The auditor could also grab one of the listing binders off the shelf, flip through it and “randomly” stop on a module to audit.
• The haphazard sampling is usually typically, quicker, and uses smaller sample sizes than other sampling techniques. The main disadvantage of haphazard sampling is that since it is not statistically based, generalizations about the total population should be made with extreme caution.
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Judgmental Sampling• In judgmental
(another non-statistical) sampling, the person doing the sample uses his/her knowledge or experience to select the items to be sampled.
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Chapter 3
Research Design
Respondents of the Study
Sampling technique
Instruments used in the study
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Aggregate Data Analysis
Case Studies
Content Analysis
Ethnography
Evaluation Research
Experimental Research
Interviewing
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Observation: Field / Naturalistic or Structured
Organizational Analysis
Policy Analysis
Social Impact Analysis
Surveys
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Aggregate Data Analysis
The aggregate data study design defines a
group as the unit of analysis. It is used when
individual data is not available. Aggregate data
are easily and relatively cheaply available as
compared to individual data
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Case Study
The Case Study (CS) is a type of Field Research
which examines a site using a combination of
personal interviews, analyses of written
documents, & observations
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Content Analysis
The review of narrative data (from open ended
surveys, interviews, books, press, media, etc.)
that looks for regularity
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Content Analysis
The Content Analysis Process has SIX Steps
The Researcher
1. Reviews a sample of responses to an open-
ended question from a Record
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Content Analysis
2. Decides how many different kinds
( categories ) of responses exist
3. Defines each category & illustrates w/ a
concrete example
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Content Analysis
4. Attaches a numerical code to it
5. Reviews the full set of verbal responses to
determine if all categories are represented
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Content Analysis
6. Establishes Internal Reliability:
a. Since a lot of judgment is involved in this
translation, accepted practice dictates that at
least 2 people independently code the entire set
of responses
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Content Analysis
b. Then their judgments are compared
c. Differences are resolved & consistency is
achieved
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Ethnography
A qualitative research method aimed to learn
and understand cultural phenomena which
reflect the knowledge and system of meanings
guiding the life of a cultural group.
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Evaluation Research
Evaluation is a methodological area that is
closely related to, but distinguishable from more
traditional social research.
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Evaluation Research
Evaluation utilizes many of the same
methodologies used in traditional social
research, but because evaluation takes place
within a political and organizational context, it
requires group skills, management ability,
political dexterity, sensitivity to multiple
stakeholders and other skills that social
research in general does not rely on as much.
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Experimental Research
A systematic and scientific approach to research
in which the researcher manipulates one or
more variables, and controls and measures any
change in other variables.
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Interviewing
The qualitative research interview seeks to
describe and the meanings of central themes in
the life world of the subjects. The main task in
interviewing is to understand the meaning of
what the interviewees say.
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Observation: Field / Naturalistic or Structured
Naturalistic observation is a research method
commonly used by psychologists and other
social scientists. This technique involves
observing subjects in their natural environment.
This type of research is often utilized in
situations where conducting lab research is
unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly
affect the subject's behavior.
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Observation: Field / Naturalistic or Structured
Naturalistic observation differs from structured
observation in that it involves looking at a
behavior as it occurs in its natural setting with
no attempts at intervention on the part of the
researcher.
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Organizational Analysis
The study of the processes that characterize all
kinds of organizations, including business firms,
government agencies, labour unions, and
voluntary associations such as sports clubs,
charities, and political parties.
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Organizational Analysis
Any organization is a social unit with three
properties:
(1)it is a corporate (or group) actor,
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Organizational Analysis
(2) it claims a special and limited purpose (such
as making profits or providing medical care),
and
(3) its creators intend it to last beyond the
accomplishment of a single action, if not
indefinitely.
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Policy Analysis
Is determining which of various alternative
policies will most achieve a given set of goals in
light of the relations between the policies and
the goals.
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Social Impact Analysis
Can be defined as the process of assessing
or estimating, in advance, the social
consequences that are likely to follow from
specific policy actions or project development,
particularly in the context of appropriate
national, state, or provincial environmental
policy legislation.
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Social Impact Analysis
Is the process of assessing and managing the
impacts of a project, plan, program or policy on
people.
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Survey
Survey methodology is the field that studies
the sampling of individuals from a population
with a view towards making statistical
inferences about the population using the
sample.
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Survey
Polls about public opinion, such as political
beliefs, are reported in the news media in
democracies.
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The EndEXECUTIVE PRODUCER
Theodore Valerio
SPECIAL THANKSScribdGoogle
Suite101FacebookWikipedia
WestfallteamExperiment-Resources
Antiojo & Salamatin’s Thesis
MELJUN CORTES