MAXIMUM OXYGEN CONSUMPTION AND ITS COMPARISON
WITH TEAM, INDIVIDUAL AND COMBATIVE SPORTS
By
Dr. Birendra Jhajharia
Assistant Professor
Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education,
Gwalior, (M.P.) - India
2017
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ISBN: 978-93-84659-97-4
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Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
By nature human being are competitive and aspire from excellence in
every field. Sport is not an exception. Changes are the order of the day. Changes
are taking place every day in every walk of life. Life of people, their
philosophy, ways of living etc. are under going changes due to basic and applied
research in various fields. Man has reached the space age from the primitive
Stone Age because of continuous change. Records have been sprucing and the
athletes as a result of combined improvement in the technique of training and
coaching. New techniques are developed in laboratories and scientific methods
are applied to obtain top-level performance. Sports by their vary nature are
enjoyable, challenging, absorbing and require a certain amount of skill and
physical condition.
An important phase of the physical education profession is
applied to testing of an individual’s ability to meet the demands of varying types
of tasks. An equally important application of testing the programme is made by
sports scientists and sports trainers in order to assess physical abilities in terms
of one's physical, psychological and physiological limits, so as to provide each
sportsperson with individualized and properly guided programme schedules for
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effective training programmes. Such an effort automatically ensures result
oriented training plans.
The remarkable improvement in the standards of athletic performances
during the past few decades represents a unique biological phenomenon. It was
inconceivable even a decade ago, that some of the earlier established athletic
records could be improved upon within such a short span. Apart from the
phenomenal progress in training methods, techniques and improvement in tools,
equipment and various other associated factors which contribute in shaping a
world class athlete, genetically endowed human potential seem to play a great
role in the final outcome, everything else being equal. However, the nature of
the contributory role of the genetic factors in sports events is still a mystery.
Perhaps in a few years with a rapid advance in the field of genetics a clear
picture may change soon.
With all round advancement in the science of sports the new disciplines
are emerging with micro-specializations. The elements, of scientific basis of
selection are being inducted in the procedure of selection of athletes at various
levels in some of the advanced countries. The knowledge from many scientific
disciplines is being used for improving the criteria for the selection of talents.
The physical educationists have designed test procedures fore evaluating the
fitness of young children. The structures of performance for different games and
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events are being worked out. The general physical fitness of top—ranking
athletes has been evaluated. Human growth and performance is also an
important field in this regard. The physiological factors limiting one's
performance in sports are also well known. It is the understanding of interaction
of all these factors that can help us in designing the way for selecting the
children for appropriate game and training.
A lot of progress has been made in order to assess various components
and factors that are crucial for an individual's progress in any given sport. Many
of these bests have been successfully used in order to assess given factors. But a
continued effort is on, to ensure more objective evaluation of many factors
keeping in view the application and specificity of such factors for a given sport.
Sports hold a prominent place in the modern life. Millions of people
participate in sports activities, watch and read about them and spend billions of
dollars annually on sports related activities and equipments. This has lead to
the competitive element in sports, as now sportsman participate to win and
achieve laurels for them as well as for country.
In the modern scientific age, in every field of human endeavour,
systematic objective and scientific procedures are followed in accordance with
principles based on experience, understanding and application of knowledge of
science. The field of games and sports is no exception to this. In advanced
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countries like U.S.A., Germany, Russia, Australia, Britain and others, the rapid
progress in the field of games and sports like athletics, soccer, hockey, etc. has
taken place and their international achievements have been possible only due to
research, experimentation and application of scientific knowledge.
Search and selection of potential athletes in specific field based on
scientific knowledge, is a matter of routine in many developed countries.
Unfortunately, in India, this aspect has not been given serious consideration;
consequently athletes are selected from the ‘available pool’ mainly on the basis
of their performance records in various sports meets. It is often forgotten that
such ‘talents’ have already reached their peak performance with little scope for
further spectacular improvement in spite of intense grooming schedules.
Therefore, a fresh look towards the need has to be taken to improve upon the
methods of selection of Indian athletes. They need to be identified at a very
young age.
During the last decade in many advanced countries, the “muscle Biopsy”
technique, whereby samples from skeletal muscles of healthy people are
obtained and has been widely applied “to catch them young”. Recently,
“histological and histochemical techniques have also been applied to identify
different fiber types in the skeletal muscles of man. This is than use to correlate
the contractile characteristics of their functions and metabolic potentialities in
various athletic events by determining different enzyme activities. It has become
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popular to determine muscle fiber composition of athletes involved in different
types of events. Regarding the relative distribution of ST (slow twitch) and FT
(Fast twitch) fibers, the most interesting findings are those long distance runners
have a marked predominance of ST (slow twitch) fibers in their leg muscles.
The degree to which the cardio-vascular fitness contributes to a particular
games or sports depends upon the type and variety of movements involved in
them. In sports training much emphasis is laid on those components of physical
fitness, which are most fundamental to those sports. For example training of
long distance runner, cardio-vascular & muscular endurance are prime
importance, while for sprinting, development of strength, speed is given greater
importance. Same is true in training of games such as Football, Basketball,
Volleyball, Swimming etc. The complex nature of physical fitness includes the
muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardio- respiratory endurance and the
most important of them is the cardio- respiratory endurance.
Among all the factors, the physiological characteristics play on important
role for the attainment of high level sports performance. Among the various
physiological parameters, cardio-vascular efficiency forms the basis to under-
take sports efforts successfully.
Cardio-vascular efficiency reflects the capacity of an individual to under
take and continues physical efforts of sub-maximal nature for a relatively longer
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period of time. To measure cardio-vascular efficiency, tests of physical work
capacity and VO2 max. have been developed to use in laboratory and field
situations to assist the scientists, physical educators and coaches.
Some of these tests are appropriate only to the modern fully equipped
exercise physiology laboratory and customarily make use of bicycle ergo-meter
and treadmill. These methods are called direct methods of assessing aerobic
power, because they involve collection of expired air during an exercise effort
either on treadmill or bicycle ergo-meter. The collected gas is then analyzed and
persons VO2 max.is estimated.
If sophisticated instruments are not available making use of the
ergometery certain indirect methods of estimation of Vo2 max have been
suggested. Austrian monogram is one of such method.
The purpose of the study was to compare the maximum oxygen
consumption of players belonging to different team, individual and combative
sports.
The objective of the study was to compare the maximum
oxygen consumption of players belonging to different team, individual and combative sports.
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Hypothesis
On the bases of literature reviewed, expert’s opinion and scholars own
understanding of the problem, the following hypothesis was made: -
There is a significant difference on maximum oxygen consumption of
players belonging to different team, individual and combative sports.
Definition and Explanation of Terms
Maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 max.)
The maximal rate at which oxygen can be consumed per minute; the
power or capacity of aerobic or oxygen system9.
9 Donald K. Mathews and Edward L. Fox, The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and
Athletics.
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Significance of the study
The study was significant in the following ways -
1. The findings of the study will add new knowledge in the field of physical
education and sports.
2. The results of the study will be helpful to coaches to assess their athlete’s
potentialities in relation to their respective games/sports.
3. This information may help them (coaches) to modify their existing
training schedule to have better performance.
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Chapter II
In this chapter the selection of subjects, criterion measures, administration of
tests and the statistical technique employed for analyzing the data are described.
Selection of Subjects
The subjects were selected from different match practice group i.e.
Basketball(18), Hockey(12), Swimming(4), Judo(6), Cross-Country runners(6)
and sprinters(10) from Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education
(Deemed University) Gwalior for this study. On random basis sixty percent
athletes from each match practice group were selected as the subject for the
study. All the subjects were residents of the institute and they had the similar
routine of work. The age of the subjects ranged between 20-25 years.
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Criterion Measures
Maximum Oxygen Consumption (VO2 max.)
Maximum oxygen consumption was determined by the Rockport walking
test (kline et. al. 1987).
Procedure for Administration of Test
The test involves walking as fast as possible for one mile and then
measuring the exercise heart rate and one mile time at the end of the walk. To
measure maximum oxygen consumption the formula was as follows:-
VO2 max.= 132.85 – (.0769) x wt – (.3877) x age + (6.315) x gv –
(3.2469) x 1 ml walk time – (0.1565) x heart rate.
- Weight measured in pounds.
- Mile walk time measured to 1/100th
of a second.
- Exercise heart rate (beats. min-1
) measured immediately at the
conclusion of the walk.
- Age measured to the last year completed.
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Reliability of Data
The reliability of data was ensued by establishing the instrument
reliability and tester competence.
Instrument Reliability
The stop watches used for taking performance of subjects in one mile
walk test were all calibrated, Swiss made and supplied by Krishna watch
company Bombay.
The weighing machine used for measuring the weight of the subjects was
calibrated before use and thus its reliability was accepted.
The steel tape was used for measuring the height.
Thus all the instruments used were considered reliable and precise
enough for the purpose of this study.
Tester Competency
To ensure that the scholar was well versed with the techniques of
conducting the tests, the scholar had a numbers of practice session in testing
procedures under the supervision of tests and measurement exports and guide.
For the administration of the test the scholar took the assistance of Master’s
Degree students and M.Phil scholars who had some prior experience in
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conducting such tests. Proper instructions were also given to the assistants
before the administration of the test.
Statistical Procedure
To see the significant difference of maximum oxygen consumption
among the players belonging to different sports and games the analysis of
variance F ratio was applied at .05 level. For further analysis Post-Hoc Test
(Scheffe’s Test) was applied.
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Chapter – III
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS OF THE STUDY
The statistical analysis of data on maximum oxygen consumption of
players belonging to different sports and games are presented in this chapter.
The maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 max.) was estimated by using the
formula given by Rackport.
Level of Significance
For testing the difference between the mean difference of Basketball
players, Hockey players, Judo players, Swimmers, Sprinters and Cross country
runners, the level of significance was set at .05 level.
Findings
Finding pertaining to maximum oxygen consumption of players
belonging to different sports and games which were subjected to analysis of
variance and mean difference method has been presented in the following table.
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Table – 1
COMPARISION OF MAXIMUM OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
OF PLAYERS BELONGING TO DIFFERENT
SPORTS AND GAMES
Source of
Variation
d.f. S.S. M.S.S. F-ratio
(SS)b 5 29974.46 5994.89 192.70*
(SS)w 50 1555.68 31.11
*Significant of .05 level
Cal. F = 192.70*
Tab. F = df .05 (5,50) = 2.40
The above table-1 indicates that there is a significant difference between different
sports and games in relation to maximum oxygen consumption. As F-ratio found to be
significant, the data further analysed with Post-Hock test (Scheffe’s Test). The results
pertaining to this are presented in Table-2.
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Table - 2
PAIRED MEAN DIFFERENCE OF MAXIMUM OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF
DIFFERENT SPORTS
AND GAMES
Mean Mean
Difference
CD at
5%
level
Basketball Hockey
Judo
Swimmers
Sprinter Cross
Country
65.58s 62.39 3.19 8.66
65.58 57.77 7.81* 4.24
65.58 58.91 6.67* 4.74
65.58 65.01 0.57 3.35
65.58 71.43 5.85* 4.02
62.39 57.77 4.62* 4.32
62.39 58.91 3.48 4.97
62.39 65.01 2.62 3.66
62.39 71.43 9.04* 4.32
57.77 58.91 1.14 5.60
57.77 65.01 7.24* 4.49
57.77 71.43 13.66* 5.04
58.91 65.01 6.1* 5.11
58.91 71.43 12.52* 5.60
65.01 71.43 6.42* 4.49
*significant at 0.05 level
It is evident from the table-2 that the Basketballers (65.58) were found to be significant with
Judo players (57.77), Swimmers (58.91) and Cross Country Runners (71.43) in relation to
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maximum Oxygen consumption. Since the observed mean difference between Basketball
and Judo (7.81), Basketball and Swimming (6.67), Basketball and Cross Country (5.85)
which were higher than required CD values (4.24), (4.74) and (4.02) respectively.
The above table-2 also indicated that the Hockey players (62.39) were found
significant with Judo (57.77) and Cross Country (71.43) in relation to maximum Oxygen
consumption. Since the observed mean difference between Hockey and Judo (4.62), Hockey
and Cross Country (9.04) which were higher than the require CD value (4.32).
The table-2 also indicated that the Judo players (57.77) were found to be significant
with Sprinters (65.01) and Cross Country (71.43) in relation to maximum Oxygen
Consumption. Since the observed mean difference between Judo and Sprinters (7.24), Judo
and Cross Country (13.66) which were higher than the required CD values (7.24) and (13.66)
respectively.
MEANS SCORE OF DIFFERENT SPORTS AND GAMES
IN RELATION TO VO2 MAX.
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Figure: 1
The table-2 also indicated that the Swimmers (58.91) were found to be significant with
Sprinters and Cross Country runners (71.43) in relation to maximum oxygen consumption.
Since the observed mean difference between Swimmers and Sprinters (6.1), Swimmers and
Cross Country runners (12.52) which were higher than the required CD values (5.11) and
(5.60) respectively.
The table-2 also indicated that the Sprinters (65.01) were found to be significant with
Cross Country runners (71.43) in relation to maximum oxygen consumption. Since the
observed mean difference between Sprinters and Cross Country runners (6.42) which was
much higher than the required CD value (4.49).
On the other hand the table-2 also indicated that the Basketballers (65.58) were
found to be insignificant with Hockey players (62.39) and Sprinters (65.01) in relation
to maximum oxygen consumption. Since the observed mean difference between
Basketball and Hockey (3.19), Basketball and Sprinters (0.57) which were lower than
the required CD values (8.66) and (3.35) respectively
The table-2 also indicated that the Hockey players (62.39) were found to be insignificant with
Swimmers (65.01) and Sprinters (65.01) in relation to maximum oxygen consumption. Since
the observed mean difference between Hockey and Swimmers (3.48), Hockey and Sprinters
(2.62) which were lower than the required CD values (4.97) and (3.66) respectively.
The table-2 also indicated that the Judo players (57.77) were found to be insignificant
with Swimmers (58.91) in relation to maximum oxygen consumption. Since the observed
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mean difference between Judo and Swimmers (1.14), which was lower than the required CD
values (5.60).
Discussion of Finding
From the results of table-2 it is obvious that the Cross Country runners
had shown higher VO2 max. (71.43) in comparison to all other games sports.
The reason could be that they (Cross Country runners) were directly involved in
the activity which is primarily aerobic in nature.
Further the Basketballers (65.58), hokey players (62.39) and Sprinters (65.01)
had more or less same VO2 max. with a small range of variation. The reason
could be that they were involved in similar kind of training, which is based on
strength endurance and explosive strength.
On the other hand Judo players (57.77) have shown the lowest VO2 max.
This is probably because Judo is primarily an anaerobic base activity where Vo2
max. is not an essential quality more over the duration of activity is also very
shot. Swimmers also showed a lower maximum oxygen consumption (58.91) in
comparison to all other sports and games except Judo (57.77). Normally the
swimmers are having high VO2 max. for those who are engaged in long distance
swimming. But the group chosen here were mostly from those who practiced
and participated in the short distance (sprinting) swimming as the size of
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swimming pool of Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education,
Gwalior was having the measurement of 12 ½ feet x 25 feet only.
To conclude the discussion of finding it can be stated that subject chosen in this
above study were mainly selected from different match practice groups, but the
fact stands that even when they were grouped in various games/sports, they
were also involved with overall physical education activity programme as
academic requirement of each subjects, therefore the impact of other activities
could not be nullified and thus above variations in Vo2 max. of different games
and sports groups were observed. But one finding is very clear that on an
average the VO2 max. of all the subjects irrespective of their games/sports were
higher that the Vo2 max. Values of normal sedentary individuals (between 38-40
ml./kg.)1. This might be attributed by the fact that regular participation in
physical education programme influenced the overall VO2 max. level of entire
batch of subjects irrespective of match practice specialization.
Testing Of Hypothesis
It was hypothesized that there may be a significant difference on maximum
oxygen consumption of players belonging to different sports and games, but the
study exhibited the insignificant difference between Basketball with Hockey
and Sprinters, Hockey with Swimming, Judo with Swimming. Hence the
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hypothesis is not accepted at this level, but present study also shows the
significant difference between Basketball with Swimming and Cross Country,
Hockey with Judo and Cross, Judo with Sprinters and Cross Country,
Swimming with Sprinters and Cross Country and Sprinters with Cross Country
in relation to their maximum oxygen consumption, hence the hypothesis is
accepted at this level.
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Chapter –I V
SUMMERY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summery
The demand of oxygen differs from one sport to other sports. It’s a
common observation that whenever athlete go for anaerobic type of training
his/her anaerobic capacity is enhanced but along with this it is also observed
that after anaerobic type of training the aerobic capacity of the athlete is also
improves. Thus it is very essential to know that which type of training
(aerobic/anaerobic) dominates to a particular sport, or whether combination
training is needed.
The purpose of the study was to investigate whether there were
significant differences between different team, individual and combative sports
in relation to maximum oxygen consumption.
Fifty-Six subjects were selected from different match practice groups i.e.
basketball (18), hockey (12), judo (6), swimming (4), sprinter (10) and cross
country runners (6) from Lakshmibai National Institute of Physical Education,
Gwalior, (Deemed University) for the study.
In order to ascertain significant differences among different sports and
games in relation to maximum oxygen consumption ANOVA Test was
employed. For further analysis Post-Hoc Test (Scheffe’s Test) is applied.
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The Cross Country runners had shown highest VO2 max. (71.43) in
comparison to all other games and sports. Further the Basketballers (65.58),
Hockey players (62.39) and Sprinters (65.01) had more or less same VO2 max.
with a small range of variation.
On the other hand Judo players had shown (57.77) lowest Vo2 max.,
Swimmers also shown a lower VO2 max. (58.91) in comparison to all other
sports/games except Judo (57.77).
Conclusions
From the results of the study following conclusions may be drawn:
1. The Cross Country runners had shown highest VO2 max. (71.43) In
comparison to all other games and sports.
2. The Basketballers (65.01), Hockey players (62.39) and Sprinters (65.01)
had more or less same VO2 max. with small range of variation.
3. The Judo players had shown (57.77) the lowest VO2 max. in comparison
to all other sports/games.
4. Swimmers also had shown a lower VO2 max. (58.91) in comparison to
all other sports and other sports and games except Judo 57.77.
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Recommendations
In the light of the conclusions drawn the following recommendations are
made:
1. Similar study may be carried out on subjects with age level and sex other
than used in this study.
2. Similar study may be done on different levels of a particular game (Inter
State or Inter-National level).
3. Similar study may also be done on different positions in particular sports
(Attackers, Defenders, Center forward, etc.).
4. Physical Education Teacher and Coaches may utilize the findings of the
present study by preparing or modifying the existing training schedules
for different sports and games.
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Chapter V
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Sincere efforts have been made by the research scholar to locate literature
required for the study:
Coleman, Wilkie, Viscio, Hanley, Porcari, Kline, Killer, Hsieh, Freedson
and Rippe conducted study to determine whether 1-mile walk test previously
validated in 30-69 year old subject accurately estimated Vo2 max. in 20-29 year
olds. 90 subjects (M = 40, F = 50) mean age = 25.5 years, were studied. Vo2
max was measured during a max tread mill test (TVO2) and, on a different data,
estimated from a 1-mile walk test using the equation:
Vo2 (ml/kg. min-1
) = 132.853 - .0769 Weight (lbs) - .3877 age (yr) +
6.315 sex – 3.2649 walk time (min.) - .1565 HR (bpm.). Pearson
correlations and paired t-tests were utilized to compare observed and estimated
VO2 max. values.
In the total 90 students the observed Vo2 max. was 49.4 5.3 and
estimated Vo2 max was 49.5 5.3 and their coefficient and correlation was 0.79.
where as in case of 40 male students the observed VO2 max. was 44.4 9.3 and
estimated Vo2 max 52.9 4.8 and their coefficient of correlation was 0.79, and
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at last in case of 50 female students the observed Vo2 max. was 45.4 7.0 and
estimated Vo2 max. was 46.8 4.1 and their coefficient of correlation was 0.62.
These data demonstrated no significant difference between estimated Vo2
max and TVO2 max and that this method accurately estimated Vo2 max,
particularly for M and T. In conclusion this test provides a valid estimate of Vo2
max in 20-29 years old in non-laboratory settings.
Metz and Alexander conducted a study, the purpose of this study were,
first to investigate the relationship between maximal oxygen intake and three
sub maximal work parameters (heart rate oxygen intake, and respiratory
quotient) and second to develop regression equations for the estimation of
maximal oxygen in take. 60 boys, ranging in age from 12 – 15 years, were
given a series of treadmill tests designed to elicit sub maximal work
parameter as well as maximal oxygen intake values. The data were treated by
stepwise multiple correlation-regression analysis to obtain correlation
coefficients between the various sub maximal measures and maximal oxygen
intake and to obtain regression equations for estimating maximal oxygen in
take. The .05 level was used to determine the significance of the correlation
coefficient.
Acceptable regression equation for estimation of maximal oxygen intake
required a multiple correlation coefficient equal to or larger than .700. For both
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groups of boys (12-13 year old and 14-15 yr. old) only the sub maximal heart
rate was significantly related to maximal oxygen intake the respective
coefficient being - .687 and - .355.
Maximal oxygen intake was reasonably estimated for 12-13 years old
boys using the regression equation having sub maximal heart rate and oxygen
intake as the independent variable (R = .701, S.E. of pred. = 3.125). This
regression equation did not cross-validate when applied to the 14-15 year - old
subject.
Jackson, Solomon, and Stusek conducted a study on one-mile walk test as
a field test of aerobic capacity. The purpose of the study was to investigate the
reliability and validity and to develop norms for this test for young adults. The
reliability and validity sample included 41 males (n = 21) and female (n = 20)
with an age range of 19-32 years. They performed a treadmill stress test to
determine peak O2 consumption and 3 trials of maximum one mile walk on an
indoor track. The mean trials performances are depicted in figure-1. The alpha
reliability estimate was .96 but a significant trend (T < .002) was present. Trials
2 and 3 had a reliability estimate of .95 with no trend. The r between trial 3
time and peak O2 consumption was - .57 (p < .001). Figure - 2 provides to
scatter plot of this relationship. When the Rockport prediction function using
age, weight, gender, OMW, and ending heart rate was used to predict peak O2
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the ‘r’ improved to .66 (P < .0001). The normative sample includes males (n =
400) and females (n = 426) with a range of 18-30 years. They performed a
practice trial of the OMW followed by a performance trial.
The OMW is a very reliable and moderately valid test of aerobic
capacity. A formal practice trial of the test is recommended to eliminate a
learning effect.
Getchell, Donal and Robbins done a study the purpose the study was to
evaluate the predictability of Vo2 max from a 1.5 mile running performance of
young adult women joggers. Twenty-one healthy women students (mean age =
20.1 years) underwent a continuous graded treadmill run to exhaustion. Hearth
rate were electrocardiographically monitored and oxygen uptake values were
determined for each min. of the test. In addition a 1.5 mile run on a indoor 220
yard track was completed within five days of the treadmill test. When various
correlation method were employed, the results indicated that Vo2 max. when
expressed as ml/kg. min, provided the highest correlation (r = 0.915)
with the running time for 1.5 mile. There data tended to indicate that body fat or
body weight had little effect on the results. Thus for young adult joggers, with
no problem of excess body fat or weight, the 1.5 mile run tended to be a
suitable distance or estimating cardio-respiratory endurance.
Courelis examined the relationship of leg strength and body weight for
the measurement of maximal oxygen in take on bicycle ergometer and
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treadmill. Twenty-one subjects (varsity athletes) aged 22 to 30 years were the
subjects of the study. The study concluded that maximal oxygen intake values
obtained when the treadmill is used are higher than when bicycle ergometer is
used. Some of the strength variable in the study are related to maximum oxygen
intake when bicycle ergometer is used and the body weight is negatively related
to relative maximum oxygen intake. On the bicycle ergometer and treadmill it is
not related to obsolete maximum oxygen intake.
Haynes examined the differences in aerobic capacity, strength and power
relative to weight and lean body weight between male and female collegiate
athletes. Forty one male and thirty seven female alpine skiers, cross country
skiers and middle- distance and distance runners at the university of
Colorado served as subjects, vo2 max, isometric, knee extension strength,
margarine Kalamen stair run and the vertical jump. It was concluded that
training has reduced the differences in aerobic capacity and strength but not
power to the point where they can be explained by the differences in lean body
weight between male and females.
Doolittle and Bigbee made investigation to evaluate the distance covered
in 12 minutes as an indicator of cardio-respiratory fitness and to compare it with
the 600-yard run/walk in this regard. All the subjects (153 grade 9 boys)
successfully completed a test-retest of the 12 minute run/walk which yielded a
correlation coefficient of 92, indicating that this is highly reliable measure, 9 of
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the subjects also performed maximum oxygen intake test and 600 yard
run/walk test. Maximum oxygen intake was correlated with the 12 minutes
run/walk (r=. 90) and the 600 yard run /walk (r = .62). It was concluded that
the distance covered during the 12 minutes run/walk was a highly reliable and
valid indicator of cardio-respiratory fitness and that it was to be preferred to the
600-yard run/walk in this regard.
Colemen et. al. studied nine college basketball athletes to determine the
effects of a season of competition on the aerobic and anaerobic energy sources.
Pre and Post season variables testing and recovery heart rates, performances of
the Treadmill test (time), Maximal oxygen intake (m1/kg.min) and the scores of
Margaria’s anaerobic capacity test (Vertical velocity) were studied. Analysis of
data yielded no significant decrease in recovery, heart rate, treadmill
performance time, and Vo2 max., a non significant increase in the vertical
velocity from pre to post test. The results of this investigation suggest that the
training regime in basketball was of sufficient to maintain cardio-respiratory
function and improve anaerobic performance.
Shreer studied a group of 30 untrained college males aged 18 to 20 years,
who volunteered for tests on 100,200,400 and 800 yard run, as well as on 1,2
and 3 miles runs. This study was conducted to predict maximum aerobic power
and anaerobic work capacity from various running performance and no practice
session were given for the track running. In addition, the subjects were tested
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for maximum aerobic capacity (max o2 intake) on a treadmill and anaerobic
work capacity (as measured by method of Margaria). It was concluded that
distance beyond half miles are significantly related to the aerobic.
Gibbons studied the anaerobic threshold, aerobic capacity (Max Vo2)
aerobic power (AP) on 29 young low fit = 35m×kg-1
min-1
). Females (age=19.8)
during a maximum consumption test on a motorized treadmill using the
modified Backle protocal. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of three
training groups as follows (1) At heart rate (2) At heart rate plus 40% of heart
rate the results indicated that all three groups significantly increased their
AT(P<.001) AP (P<.001) and max Vo2 ( P<.001) from pre test to post test ,
however there was no significant difference between groups (P<.005). It was
concluded that AT, AP which were investigated. Therefore, it is recommended
that low fit females should train at a level 40% below their anaerobic threshold.
Christine et. al. conducted a study on body composition and aerobic
requirement of male and female marathon runners (seven male and four
female). It was determined that experienced female runners as well as male
runners were able to work at a high fraction of their aerobic capacity during
actual marathon competition and both the female and male marathon runners
had more lean body mass. Further no significant differences in these parameters
were observed between the male and female runners studied.
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In a relationship study Abdo concluded that excess had the greatest
deleterious effect on cardiovascular efficiency. The correlation was definitely
higher for subject with normal weight. The linear correlation between
cardiovascular efficiency and ponder index was significant.
Johnson conducted a study to investigate the effect of season of inter-
collegiate soccer participation on selected components of physical fitness. The
subjects were 16 members of Emory university soccer Team 1971.The pre-
season practice and the competitive season latest approximately 10 weeks. It
was found that participation in inter collegiate soccer programme was likely to
cause adaptation in the circulatory and respiratory system that would result in
increased efficiency or improved cardio–respiratory endurance. It produced
significant improvement in agility, muscular strength, of the legs and running
speed also.
Caru et al. compared the maximum anaerobic and maximal aerobic
muscular power of young football players with corresponding non-athletic
subjects. He founds that the average maximum anaerobic muscular power in
football players was significantly higher than non-players. On the contrary the
maximal aerobic power does not differ significantly between two groups.
Custer and Chalouka conducted a study to determine the relationship
between predicted maximal O2 consumption and running performance for 6, 9
and 12 minutes duration in college women between the age of 18 and 21 years
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old (l-T— 40) maximal 02 consumption (ml/kg/min) was predicted by Astrand
Bicycle Ergometer lest. It was found that a significant (p. 05) relationship
(Pearsonsjr) existed between maximal predicted Oxygen consumption and
performances in all three runs. Since the magnitude of the difference between
correlations of the 6 min. (r=. 45) and 12 min. (r=. 49) run were not
significant, it was concluded that 5 min. run could be used in lieu of the 12
min. run, which is customarily used as a measure of cardio-respiratory fitness.
Rasch conducted a study on maximal oxygen uptake of young male adults
by using a treadmill. The scores were compared with those predicted by use of a
step test and by use of one Ergometer. The assessed scores correlated very
poorly with the predicted scores. None of the scores were of value in predicting
performance in 1000 meters, 1.5 miles or three miles run. The correlations
between the times in these events were too low to permit substitution of one for
another.
Wilmore conducted a study to establish relationship between maximum
oxygen in athlete and the capacity for endurance performance in a sample of 30
male university students. Each subject performed two work capacity tests on
a bicycle Ergometer from which continuous, minute by minute oxygen intake
values, the amount of work performed the length of the ride (seconds)
were obtained. The result indicated a fairly high correlation (r=. 84) between
Vo2 max. (lit./min-) and endurance capacity. But the relationship was reduced
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considerably when VO2 max. Was expressed relative to body weight (r= .37)
and lean body weight (r=.37). However, where the influence of body weight and
lean body weight were held statistically constant, the correlation of endurance
capacity with Vo2 max. (ml/kg/min) and VO2 max. (inl/lit/min) increased to
r=.78 and r=.64 respectively. He concluded that there is a substantial
relationship between endurance capacity and VO2max. Which is essentially
independent of the form in which VO2 max. was reported provided the influence
of the body weight and lean body weight on variables and are taken into
account.
Karth conducted an Ailout test on a bicycle ergo-meter with male college
students (N=24) to determine VO2 max. Maximal oxygen consumption, which
was expressed as, the greatest amount of oxygen consumed during any one
minute of exercise on the bicycle ergometer, divided by subject’s body weight.
Endurance was the amount of work performed during a two minute bout of
exercise consisting of flexion of the left forearm strength recovery was
expressed first as the strength which was recorded during a ten minute recovery
period relative to the maximum strength recorded and then as the percentage of
strength decrement, occurring at the end of exercise which was recovered
during each minute of recovery period. Correlation between maximal oxygen
consumption and endurance and strength recovery score were not significant
(P.05). Partial correlation between maximal oxygen consumption and endurance
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with the effect of the strength held constant did not result in a significant
correlation.
Miller in his study observed that by training vital capacity could not be
increased significantly. However maximum breath holding, maximum
expiratory pressure and pulse rate showed significant changes particularly the
maximum expiratory pressure, where change was significant.
Lois Williams conducted a study on reliability of predicting maximal
oxygen intake using the Astrand Ryhming Nomogram. Thirty-one female
physical education majors and minors were used to study the test-retest
reliability of oxygen uptake estimated form the Astrand Rhyming Nomogram.
The test was administered twice on each of 2 days. The estimated reliability for
single trials was low. 64, a total of 3 trials over 3 days was need to estimate
reliability above .80 and 6 trials were needed to estimate reliability above .90
ANOVA finding revealed that additional trials over days is preferred to
additional trials administered within days.
Robert, Frank and Franklin conducted a study on prediction of oxygen
intake from ventilation and oxygen intake and work capacity from heart rate
during heavy exercise. Minute by minute 02 intakes, ventilation volume and
heart rate were correlated during 12 minute of heavy, fatiguing exercise on the
bicycle ergometer (N=50). The 12 minute mean VE values correlated r=.97 with
the corresponding mean VOn scores during exercise and r~.98 during 10-minute
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of recovery correlation across individuals, for VO2 and VE were also relatively
high during the last 3 minutes of exercise and during 10 minute of recovery.
This means that VE could be used to predict Vo, very effectively on the other
hand the minute by minute correlations between individual heart rates and O2
intake were low (r=.06 to -.29) and non-significant. When the changes from
resting to exercise in heart rate (A HR) and 0^ intake (AVo,) were grouped by 4
minute intervals the correlations were somewhat higher (r=.10 for the period 0-
3, .38 for 3-6, 7.2 for 6-9 and .47 to 9-12). However, these correlations were
still too low to be of much productive value. Oxygen pulse (vbp/HR) at average
minute was also a poor predictor of individual differences in work capacity
during the 12 min. fatiguing test (r=.10) or during a different work capacity test
on the bicycle ergo-meter of the all-out type (r=.25).
Campbell conducted a study to determine the validity of workloads, at
180 and 190 heart rate as a predictor of maximal oxygen consumption of
endurance trained college female athletes. 28 Ss, 7 each from field hockey,
basketball, track and swimming W5re randomly selected from varsity teams. Ss
walked the treadmill to max. with expired air samples being taken for analysis
and Vo calculation at ilR 180 and 190. It was found that the Blake regression
line for these females using either MR 180 or 190 (r = .81). It was concluded
that the HR could be used as a valid cut-off point in a treadmill procedure for
predicting Vo2 max of endurance trained women athletes.
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Haynes examined the differences in aerobic capacity, strength and power
relative to weight and lean body weight between male and female collegiate
athletes. Forty one male and thirty seven female alpine skiers, cross country
skiers and middle-distance and distance runners at the University of Colorodo
served as subjects, VO max, isometric, knee extension strength, Rnargarin
Kalamen Stair run and the vertical jump. It was concluded that training has
reduced the differences in aerobic capacity and strength but not power to the
point where they can be explained by the differences in lean body weight
between males and females.
Schrciber studied the effect of participation in University athletics
on anaerobic fitness and relationship of somatotype to the development
of anaerobic capacity. She concluded that all sornatotypes improved in
anaerobic capacity as a result of training. High intercity work of low
duration, made the greatest intra-group improvement in anaerobic capacity
following participation in their sports. And also the endomorphs and
mesomorphs had higher anaerobic capacities than other somatotype
categories.
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