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faulty circuits
Mary ET Boyle, Ph.D.Department of Cognitive Science
UCSD
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Mental disorders such as depression display no conspicuous brain damage,
they were long thought to stem from purely psychological
processes
Neural imaging is revealing that
abnormal activity along a circuit of brain structures involved in
mental processing underlies many mental disorders, making the
physical dysfunction causing the mental symptoms
visible for the first time.
Understanding the biology of mental disorders will clarify
the sources of malfunction in a
circuit, provide
objective methods of diagnosis and lead to targeted
treatments.
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Mental disorders
Depression, OCD
No conspicuous lesions
Classical neurological illness
Stroke, PD
Visible damage
—a physical cause is still not obvious
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Neuroimaging has opened up the black box of the brain
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Coordination between areasMental disorders studied as
abnormalities in connections between distant areas
Electrical circuit malfunction Understanding underlyingcauses treatment
neuroimaging
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• 16% of all Americans• Most prevalent illness in developed world
Major depressive disorder
• medical disability among people between the ages 15 and 44Leading cause of
• Profound sense of despair• Helplessness & hopelessness
Mental Symptoms
• Loss of appetite• Sleep disturbances and Fatigue• Disturbs immune and hormonal systems
Physical symptoms
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Depression sufferers have low energy and mood•reaction times and memory
formation are inhibited•anxiety and sleep disturbances,
suggest certain brain areas are overactive
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Also known as subgenualcingulate cortex (Cg25)
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depression circuit
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• An imbalance
Area 25
• Fear • Anxiety
amygdala
• Stress response
hypothalamus
• Memory processing
Hippocampus• Processes
sensoryperceptions
Insula
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7/5/2018 137/5/2018 13
Julie G. Hensler,
in Handbook of Behavioral
Neuroscience,2010
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Serotonin relays signals from one region to another
Serotonin is manufactured in
the brain
90% of the supply is found in the
digestive tract and in blood platelets
Tryptophan is a serotonin precursor
Tryptophan hydroxylase is the needed enzyme.
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7/5/2018 167/5/2018 16Julie G. Hensler, in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, 2010
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7/5/2018 177/5/2018 17Julie G. Hensler, in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, 2010
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7/5/2018 187/5/2018 18Julie G. Hensler, in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, 2010
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7/5/2018 197/5/2018 19Julie G. Hensler, in Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience, 2010
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Cg25 – Subgenual cingulate cortex• Increased activation during acute sadness in
healthy volunteers.• (PET)
Cg25 activity decreased after…• Depressed patients treated with fluoxetine.• Fluoxetine- SSRI - Prozac, Sarafem
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• Rich with serotonin transporters• Participants with “short” variation of the 5HTP
transporter gene –• Leads to higher depression risk.
Cg25
• Abnormal activity in Cg25 disrupts the hypothalamus, amygdala , insula, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.
depression
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Serotonin transporters
Molecules that manage the amount of neurotransmitter available to neurons
Short and long variations of
transporter gene
Short variation less transporter
protein reduced volume of Cg25
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Putative effects of 5-HTT gene variation on human 5-HT neurotransmission based on findings from 5-HTT knockout mice. (a) Following release of 5-HT, 5-HTTactively returns 5-HT to the presynaptic neuron and thereby determines the duration and intensity of 5-HT communication with its receptors on postsynaptic targets locatedin limbic regions mediating emotion. (b) A low-expressing (‘S allele’) form of the human 5-HTT gene has been associated with relatively lesser 5-HTT mRNA transcription and5-HTT binding, and reduced platelet 5-HT reuptake [9–11], as well as reduced 5-HT1A receptor binding in brain [61]. In mice genetically engineered without a functioning 5-HTT, loss of 5-HTT gene function increases extracellular levels of 5-HT and leads to brain region-specific reductions in 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptor binding and increases in 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C and 5-HT3 receptor mRNA levels and/or ligand binding [15–17,24,60]. Although the net effect of these complex changes is not fully understood, they mightcontribute to alterations in emotional processing associated with a relative loss of 5-HTT function in S allele carriers.
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• influence changes in appetite, sleep and energy
Hypothalamus and brainstem
• affect anxiety and moodamygdala and insula
• critical to memory processing and attentionhippocampus
• mediate insight and self-esteemprefrontal cortex
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Science 2002
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Obsessive-compulsive disorder• OCD• Once considered as neurosis – psychic conflict
Characteristics:• Intrusive, repetitive thoughts -- obsessions• Impaired by the need to perform stereotypic, repetitive rituals – compulsions
Examples• Contaminated – wash hands repetitively• Failed responsibility – keep checking stove
Patients know• Their thoughts are senseless• Cannot control the obsession or compulsion – “mental tics”
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OCD Circuit
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Buckholtz J. et al. July 30, 2010 Science
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Impulsivity variation among
individuals
Ability to deliberate on consequences of an action.
Impulsivity linked to
dopamine
Learning and reward.
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Buckholtz J. et al. July 30, 2010 Science
PET scans of 32 healthy and psychiatrically normal test subjects.Two rounds of impulsivity task
1st round: subjects take a placebo 2nd round: subjects given amphetamine (stimulate DA)
Results:Subjects with higher impulsivity scores had lowest D2/D3 autoreceptor activity in the midbrain.Under the influence of amphetamine – the impulsive subjects released more DA than the less impulsive counterparts.
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Special type of biomarker.
Divide behavioral symptoms into
phenotypes.
Needs to have a clear genetic connection.
Term borrowed from insect biology.
What is endophenotyope?
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2-3% population
genetic
riskOCD + Close
relatives
Distinctive brain structure
?
Impairment in brain regions controlling flexible behavior.
Vulnerability factor.
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• OCD patients• Close relatives• Age matched controls
1/3
• Computer test• Press appropriate button when an arrow
appeared on a screen
• When a bell rang, subjects had to attempt to stoptheir responses.
Did worse on the task
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Brain maps illustrating regions where grey matter density was most strongly correlated with latency of motor inhibitory response
Red/yellow regions indicate areas with impaired response inhibition.
OCD patients and close relatives showed decreases of grey matter in brain regions important in suppressing responses and habits – the orbitofrontal and right inferior frontal regions.
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Patients with OCD and their unaffected relatives showed underactivation during reversal learning bilaterally in the lateral orbitofrontalcortex (OFC), lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), and parietal cortices.
The images are of representative brain slicesshowing regions activated during reversal learning across all subjects (yellow areas; false discovery rate–corrected, P < 0.05) and regions in which there was a significant effect of group (blue areas; corrected to lessthan one false-positive cluster across the whole map)
Chamberlain, S. R., et al.(2008)
In reversal learning, the individual first learns to make a discrimination, such as choosing a black object in a black–white discrimination problem, and then is supposed to learn to reverse his choice—i.e., to choose the white object. Such reversals tend to be difficult for most learners since there are negative transfer effects; e.g.,the individual tends to persist
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OCD Circuit
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• Involved in complex tasks • e.g. decision makingOrbitofrontal cortex
• Located within the basal ganglia• Basal ganglia: centers for initiating and coordinating various
aspects of movement (including involuntary tics)
Ventral caudate nucleus
• Relays and integrates sensory informationThalamus
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