Download - Maps and GIS
Maps and GIS
Created by Lisa BinghamUniversity of Stavanger, Norway
Course Objectives• Read, understand, and interpret maps• Basic understanding of GIS• Basic understanding of GPS
http://img.moonbuggy.org/the-road-to-success/
Reading a map
Reading maps
• Maps relate information– It is up to the viewer to interpret the information– How?
• Investigate the map– Identify the parts of the map– Familiarize yourself with the map– Are there graphs? Inset maps? Additional figures?– What is the purpose of the map? What does the
map tell you? What information does it relate?
What makes a “good” map?
• Defined purpose and audience. – These influence what makes a “good” map for the
intended audience.– tourist vs. geologist
• Avoid cluttering or over-complications• Legible labeling• Coloring and patterns should follow
cartographic conventions.
Features of a map
• A concise map title• An easy to read scale bar• An easy to read legend, if necessary• North arrow if the coordinate system is not
clear or if the map is turned to an angle• Legible coordinates at the border of the map• Projection information
Identify the parts of a map
Locate:• Title• Scale• Scale bar• Legend• Coordinate system or grid markings• Location or inset map• Publication information
Title
ScaleScalebar
Gridcoordinates
Legend Some maps have north arrows or compass roses, or may include projection information. This map does not.
Compiler andpublication information
Inset map
Where is the title?
Where is the legend?
Where is the inset map?
Where is the scale bar?
Where is the scale?
Where are the grid coordinates?
Where is the north arrow?
Where is the publication information?
Where are the graphs?
Graphs
Familiarize yourself with the
map.
What does the map tell you?
Mica-rich in the south
Gold in north-central
Diamonds with goldin the northeast
Diamond production decreasing
Mineral-rich in the northMineral-poor in the centerMinerals in the south
If you represented a mining company,where would you look for:• gold?• diamonds?• bauxite?• radioactive minerals?
Understanding Map Scales
• Representations: – verbal (1 map centimeter represents 30,000 ground
centimeters)– fraction (1:25,000)– graphic (scale bar)
• Map scale indicates how much a given distance was reduced to be represented on the map.
Understanding Map Scales• Small-scale map
depicts large areas, so low resolution.
• 1:10,000,000
Understanding Map Scales• Large-scale map depicts
small areas, so high resolution.
• 1:50,000• 1,267 inches to 1 mile
Small-scale vs. Large-scale Maps
• When the scale is written as a fraction, is the fraction very small or very large?– 1/1,000– 1/100,000– 1/1,000,000– 1/5,000,000– 1/10,000,000
• Identifying a map as small- or large-scale is an exercise of relativity
Reading Map Contours
• First familiarize yourself with the map• Locate the contour interval• Investigate the contours
– Are they close together? Far apart?– Are the very straight?– Are there many concentric circles?– Do the contours shape like V’s or U’s?
Elevation Contour
What can be said about the elevation in this area (northeast
corner of the previous map)?
What can be said about the elevation in this area (northeast
corner of the previous map)?
Steep slopes
V shape
V shape
Less steep area
Coastline
What can be said about the elevation in this area (central area of the large map)?
What can be said about the elevation in this area (central area of the large map)?
Coastline
Flat area
Steeper area with very curvy
contours
High point or depression?
Flat area
High point or depression?
High point
Understanding Coordinate Systems
What is a coordinate system?
• A mathematical system used to explain the location of a point on the earth (or other planet).
• A geographic coordinate system is used to assign geographic locations to objects.
– A global coordinate system of latitude-longitude is one such framework.
• Another is a planar or Cartesian coordinate system derived from the global framework.
Latitude facts:
Lines of latitude (parallels) are evenly spaced from 0o at equator to 90o at poles.
60 nautical miles (~ 110 km)/1o, ~1.8 km/minute and ~ 30 m/second of latitude.
N. latitudes are positive, S. latitudes are negative.
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Equator
Longitude facts: Lines of longitude (meridians) converge
at the poles; the distance of a degree of longitude varies with latitude.
Zero longitude is the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian (PM); longitude is measured from 0-180o east and west of the PM.
East longitudes are positive, West longitudes are negative.
P.M.180o
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Units of Measure
• Decimal degrees (DD), e.g. - 90.50o, 35.40o – order by longitude, then latitude– Format used by ArcGIS software
• Degrees, Minutes, Seconds (DMS), e.g. – 90o 30’ 00”, 35o 24’ 00”
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
What is a map projection? A map projection is used to portray all or part of
the round Earth on a flat surface. This cannot be done without some distortion.
Every projection has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. There is no "best" projection.
The mapmaker must select the one best suited to the needs, reducing distortion of the most important features.
Laying the earth flat• Why?
– Need convenient means of measuring and comparing distances, directions, areas, shapes.
– Traditional surveying instruments measure in meters or feet, not degrees of longitude and latitude.
– Globes are bulky and can’t show detail.• 1:24,000 globe would have diameter of ~ 13 m• Typical globe has scale of ~ 1:42,000,000
– Distance & area computations more complex on a sphere.
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Laying the earth flat• How?
– Using projections – transformation of curved earth to a flat map; systematic rendering of the longitude and latitude graticule to rectangular coordinate system.
Map distanceGlobe distance
Globe distanceEarth distance
Scale1: 42,000,000
Scale Factor0.9996
(for specific points)
Mercator ProjectionEarth Globe
Map
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Inflatable globe demonstration
Blown upand
Cut up
Laying the earth flat• Systematic rendering of Latitude (f) &
Longitude (l) to rectangular (x, y) coordinates:
Geographic Coordinates(f, l)
Projected Coordinates(x, y)
0, 0 x
y
Map Projection
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Laying the earth flat
• “Geographic” display – no projection– x = l, y = f– Grid lines have same scale and spacing
y
x
l
f
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
“Geographic” Display• Distance and areas distorted by varying amounts
(scale not true); e.g. high latitudes
y
x l
f
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Projected Display
• E.g. Mercator projection:– x = l– y = ln [tan f + sec f]
yf
0
90
0 5+
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Laying the earth flat• How?Projection types:
a A’
bB’
aA’
bB’
aA’
bB’
Orthographic
Gnomonic
Stereographic
TT’
T T’ TT’
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Inflatable globe demonstration
Light shines through
Projection produces distortion of:
• Distance• Area• Angle• ShapeDistortions vary with scale; minute for large-scale maps
(e.g. 1:24,000), gross for small-scale maps (e.g. 1: 5,000,000)
Goal: find a projection that minimizes distortion of property of interest
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
How do I select a projection?• Scale is critical – projection type makes very little
difference at large scales• For large regions or continents consider:
– Latitude of area• Low latitudes – normal cylindrical• Middle latitudes – conical projection• High latitudes – normal azimuthal
– Extent• Broad E-W area (e.g. US) – conical• Broad N-S area (e.g. S. America) – transverse cylindrical
– Theme• e.g. Equal area vs. conformal (scale same in all directions)
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
How to know which map projection to use?
• General guide:http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/MapProjections/projections.html
• Conventions for different areas or fields of study
Overall View of GIS
Key Questions and Issues
• What is GIS?• What are the applications of GIS?• How is the real world represented in GIS?• What analyses can GIS perform?
What does GIS stand for?
• GIS is an acronym for “Geographic Information System”
What is GIS?
• Computerized management and analysis of geographic information
• Group of tools (and people) for collection, management, storage, analysis, display and distribution of spatial data and information
• Computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen
• Refer to readings for other definitions
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
GIS Software• There are several GIS software programs available for
use.– Open source (not necessarily free)
• MapServer• TerraView• Quantum GIS• UDig
– Proprietary software• IDRISI• GMT• Manifold• MapPoint• ESRI (used in class)
GIS Example
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
A GIS is Composed of Layers
Geology
DEMDigital
elevation model
Hydrography
Roads
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Features have locations
Origin (0, 0)
X axis
Y axis
StavangerX = 638539 mY = 8135093 m
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Spatial relationships can be queried
• What crosses what?• Proximity – What is within a certain distance of what?
• Containment - What’s inside of what?
• Which features share common attributes?
• Many others
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Remember
• GIS focuses on geographic information• If something has a location or is associated
with a location, it can be mapped.
Key Questions and Issues
• What is GIS?• What are the applications of GIS?• How is the real world represented in GIS?• What analyses can GIS perform?
The Global Positioning System
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
GPS Facts of Note• USA Department of Defense navigation system
– First launch on 22 Feb 1978 – Originally 24 satellites
• Today ~30 satellites for GPS
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
GPS Milestones• 1978: First satellites launched• 1983: GPS declassified• 1989: First hand-held receiver• 1991: S/A activated (large error in location)• 1993: GPS constellation fully operational• 1995-1996: First hand-held, “mapping-grade” receivers• 1996-1998: GPS on a microchip• 1997: First $100 hand-held receiver• 2000: S/A off (more accuracy)
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
GPS Segments• Space – Satellites (SVs).
• Control – Ground stations track SV orbits and monitor clocks, then update this info for each SV, to be broadcast to users.
• User – GPS receivers convert SV signals into position, velocity and time estimates.
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
How are SV and receiver clocks synchronized?
Clock errors will cause spheres of position (solid lines) to miss intersecting at a point.
Adjust receiver clock slightly forward will cause larger DT(=larger sphere; dashed) and intersection at point.
Requires 4 SVs, not 3 as shown, for clock error & X, Y, Z
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Satellite Positioning
Geocenter
Known
OrbitObserve DT
Determine
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
3-D (X, Y, Z) One-way Ranging• Intersection of 2 spheres of position yields circle• Intersection of 3 spheres of position yields 2 points
of location– One point is position, other is either in space or within
earth’s interior– With earth ellipsoid (4th sphere)
• Get receiver clock synchronized and X & Y but no Z
• Intersection of 4 spheres of position yields XYZ and clock synchronization
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
200 km
50 km
Sources of Error
SV clock error (~1.5 m)
Ionospheric Refraction (~ 5 m)(Can correct with L1 & L2 DTs)
Tropospheric Delay (~ 0.5 m)
Multipathing (~0.5 m)
+ GDOP (errors x 4-6)(Geometric dilution of precision)
L2L1
Satellite Orbit Errors (~2.5 m)
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Satellite Constellation
• Must have a good spread of satellites• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:ConstellationGPS.gif
GPS Resolution and Map Scales
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
Familiarization with GIS
Software used is ESRI ArcGIS, but concepts are the same with any GIS
software program.
Vector data
Vector data
• An x, y coordinate system references the real-world location.
• Shapefiles and feature classes (file types) are vector data.
• Appropriate for discrete data where boundaries are needed. – Pipeline location.
Raster data
Raster data
• Assign a value to a cell.
Raster data
• Raster data may be a georeferenced jpg or tiff, or a converted ASCII grid.
• Appropriate for continuous data where discrete boundaries are not necessary. – Topography
• Grid files– Cells contain Z data.– The smaller a cell size, the higher the resolution.
Practical uses of raster data
• Simple display of a raster– Topography (elevation)– Bathymetry (depth)– Gravity– Magnetic anomalies
Advanced uses of raster data
• Additional processing of raster– Changes in morphology– Sediment thickness– Hill shades (Creating texture)– Contours– Topographic profiles– Spatial analysis– Map algebra
Using Satellite Data with GIS
• GPS Data– Datapoints– Tracks
• Remote Sensing Data– Satellite images– RADAR
Beijing, Chinahttp://www.globalsecurity.org
Omanhttp://www.satimagingcorp.com
Using Satellite Data with GIS– Digitize buildings and roads– Digitize faults, scarps, rivers, or
elevation
Beijing, Chinahttp://www.globalsecurity.org
Omanhttp://www.satimagingcorp.com
ArcMap document
Map area
Table of contents
Title bar
Coordinates
Acquiring External Data• Government and non-government agencies may
provide free GIS data• Quality
– Map purpose influences acceptable quality
General Websites: Shapefiles• Norwegian Petroleum Directorate
www.npd.no• GIS Data Depot
data.geocomm.com• DIVA-GIS
www.diva-gis.org/gdata• Norwegian Geological Survey (NGU)
www.ngu.no• United States Geological Survey
www.usgs.gov• Many others
General Websites: X,Y Data (Need Converting)
• USGS NEIC Earthquake Databasehttp://neic.usgs.gov/neis/epic/epic.html
General Websites: Grids (May Need Converting)
• General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO)www.gebco.net
• CGIAR-CSI SRTMProcessed NASA satellite topography datahttp://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/
• Scripps Institution of Oceanographyhttp://topex.ucsd.edu/marine_topo/
• NGDC World Magnetic Anomaly Mapwww.geomag.us/models/wdmam.html
General Websites: Maps (Need georeferencing)
• The University of Texas at Austin Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collectionwww.lib.utexas.edu/maps/
• Google Image search
Identify features
• Select the identify tool.• Click on a feature.
Why select features?
• Create subsets• Find data• Find counts of data with certain attributes• Find data near a location
Select by attributes
• Use Select by Attributes wizard
• Use when attribute values are known and assigned
• Can be unique
Select by location
• Use select by Location wizard
• Location with buffers– What is a buffer?
• Location with respect to another dataset
Creating and editing shapefiles
• Not all data that is needed for a mapping project will be available in GIS format
• Some data is extremely expensive to buy• Some data is not available for purchase• Sometimes the GIS technician needs to create
new data based on other map layers
Georeferencing
What is Georeferencing?
• It is a process by which locational information (geo) is added (reference) to an image (raster) in a GIS program.
• A point on the image is assigned a coordinate pair in two ways:– By lining up the image to a feature– By adding coordinates directly
For Example:• Align raster image to vector data (shapefile or feature)
Nature of the problem:• Data source
registration may differ by:– Rotation– Translation– Distortion
DistortionDifferential Scaling Skew
TranslationRotation
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
General problem is then:
Source (x, y)
Destination (X’, Y’)
(0,0) (1,0)
(0,1)
(498100, 3715000)
(501000, 3725000)
Control Points“Displacement Link”
(1,1)
(“Warp”)
From M. Helper, University of Texas, 2008
What images to use?
• Trusted sources (published maps from map agencies)
• Clear coordinate system markings (Decimal degrees for Geographic Coordinate Systems; Meters for UTM and Mercator, but need a reasonable guess of UTM zone or Mercator)
• Clear country boundaries, city locations, major roads, major rivers
What images to discard?
• Sketchy sources (personal websites or unpublished sources)
• Blurry, coarse or very thick country boundaries. These are usually over-generalized.
• Maps that rely on other maps to show their locations (over-use of inset maps)
• Exceptions: Very old maps which are not available in an updated form!
Digitizing from Georeferenced Image
• Obtain information that has not been published in GIS
• Obscure publication or out-of-print publication• Error margin depends on overall scale of data
(global vs continental vs regional vs country/state vs town)
Practice: Good or Bad?
Practice: Good or Bad?