Download - Lymphatic-Immune & Endocrine Systems
The Lymphatic and Immune Systems
Overview:
Major Structures Related Combining Forms Primary Functions
Lymph lymph/o The fluid that removes cellular waste products,
pathogens, and dead blood cells from the tissues.
Lymphatic Vessel lymphangi/o Returns lymph from the tissue to the circulatory
and Ducts system.
Lymph Nodes lymphaden/o Filter pathogens and harmful substances from the
lymph.
Tonsils and tosill/o, adenoid/o Protect the entry into the respiratory system.
Adenoids
Spleen splen/o Filters foreign materials from the blood. Maintains
the approriate balance between cells and plasma in
the blood. Destroys worn-out blood cells, releases
hemoglobin, act as a blood reservoir, and stores
platelets.
Bone Marrow myel/o Produces blood cells. [also refers to the spinal cord]
Lymphocytes lymphocyt/o The specialized white blood cells that play an
important role in immune reactions.
Thymus thym/o Secretes the endocrine thymosin that aids in the
maturation of T lymphocytes for use by the immune
system.
Immune System immun/o Defends the body against harmful substances, such as
pathogenic microorganisms, allergens, toxins, and
malignant cells.
Introduction
The lymphatic and immune systems work in close cooperation to protect and maitain the health of the body.
Some functions and structures of these systems are perfomed by specialized structures or shared structures.
Additional roles are performed by other body systems.
Medical Specialties related to the Lymphatic and Immune Systems
Allergist specializes in diagnosing and treating conditions of altered immunologic reactivity,
such as allergic reactions.
Hematologist specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and disorders of the blood and
Immunologist
Ancologist is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating malignant disorders such as
blood-forming tissues[hemat/o means blood, and -ologist means specialist].
specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the immune system[immun means
protected, and -ologist means specialist].
Functions of the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system performs three primary functions in cooperation with other body systems. These are:
* Absorbing fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine or digestive system and transport them
to the cells.
* Removing waste from the tissues; then filters and returns this excess tissue fluid to the cirulatory system.
* Providing aid to the immune system.
Absorption of Fats and Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Food is digested in the small intestine. From here, the nutrients, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed
for use throughout the body.
* The blood vessels in the villi absorb most of the nutrients from the digested food directly into the
bloodstream.
* Fats and fat-soluble vitamins that cannot be absorbed directly into the bloodstream are absorbed and
transported by the lacteals of the lymphatic system.
Waste Removal from the Tissues
The lymphatic system removes waste products and excess fluids created by the cells. It also destroys
pathogens and takes away foreign substances that are present in the tissues.
Cooperating with the Immine System
The lymph nodes play an active role in cooperation with the immune system to protect the body against
invading microorganisms and diseases.
Structures of the Lymphatic System
The major structures of the lymphatic system are lymph, lymphatic vessels and ducts, and lymph nodes.
Additional structures include the tonsils, thymus, spleen, lacteals, Peyer's patches, the vermiform appendix,
and lymphocytes. Lymphocytes, which are specialized white blood cells, have roles in both the lymphatic and
immune systems.
Lymphatic Circulation
clear, watery fluid that transports waste products and proteins out of the spaces between the cells of the
body tissues. It also destroys bacteria or other pathogens that are present in the tissues. Lymph must be
filtered by the lymph nodes to remove this contamination before it enters the bloodstream.
Because the lymphatic vessels are closely aligned with those of the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic
tumors and cancer[onc means tumor, and -ologist means specialist].
* The villi are small finger-like projections that line the small intestine. These structures contain blood
vessels and lacteals, which are specialized structures of the lymphatic system.
Lymphatic circulation transports lymph from tissues throughout the body and eventually returns this fluid
to the venous circulation. Lymph is the remaining intercellular fluid that has not been resorbed. Lymph is a
system is sometimes referred to as the secondary circulatory system. Despite the similarities, there are
major differences between these two circulatory systems.
* Blood circulates throughout the entire body. Lymph flows in only one direction, from its point of origin
until its return to the venous circulation in the region of the neck.
* Blood flows in an open system in which it leaves, and re-enters, the blood vessels through the capillaries.
Lymphatic circulation is a closed system. From the time lymph enters the lymphatic capillaries, it does not
leave the lymphatic vessels again until it returns to the venous circulation.
* Blood is pumped throughout the body by the heart. The lymphatic system does not have a pump-like organ.
Instead, lymph must depend on help from the movements of nearby muscles and blood vessels to aid in its
flow.
* The color of the blood makes the arteries and veins readily visible. Lymph is a clear fluid, and the
lymphatic vessels are not readily visible.
* Blood is filtered by the kidneys, and waste products are excreted by the urinary system. Lymph is filtered
by lymph nodes located along the lymphatic vessels throughout the body.
Interstitial Fluid and Lymph Creation
the capillaries and into the spaces between the cells. This interstitial fluid transports food, oxygen, and
hormones to the cells.
means to be taken up again by the body.
* The remaining 10% of the interstitial fluid that was not reabsorbed becomes lymph. It is transported by the
lymphatic vessels and is filtered by lymph nodes located along these vessels.
Lymphatic Capillaries
walls are only one cell in thickness. These cells separate briefly to allow lymph to enter the capillary, and the
action of the cells as they close forces the lymph to flow forward.
Lymphatic Vessels and Ducts
deeper within the tissues. Like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent the backward flow of lymph.
The larger lymphatic vessels eventually join together to form two ducts. Each duct drains a specific part of
the body and returns the lymph to the venous circulation.
quadrant of the body and the right arm. The right lymphatic duct empties into the right subclavian vein.
the head and neck, and upper left quadrant of the trunk, the left arm, and the entire lower portion of the
trunk and both legs. The thoracic duct empties into the left subclavian vein.
Lymph Nodes
pathogens. Unfiltered lymph flows into the nodes, and here the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances such
as bacteria, viruses, and malignant cells. Additional structures within the node filter the lymph to remove
Interstitial fluid, also known as intercellular or tissue fluid, is plasma from arterial blood that flows out of
* About 90% of this fluid is reabsorbed by the capillaries and returned to the venous circulation. Reabsorbed
Lymphatic capillaries are microscopic, blind-ended tubes located near the surface of the body. The capillary
Lymph flows from the lymphatic capillaries into the progressively larger lymphatic vessels, which are located
* The right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the upper right
* The thoracic duct, which is the largest tymphatic vessel in the body, collects lymph from the left side of
Each small, bean-shaped lymph node contains specialized lymphocytes that are capable of destroying
additional impurities. After these processes are complete, the lymph leaves the node and continues its
journey to again become part of the venous circulation.
There are between 400 and 700 lymph nodes located along the larger lymphatic vessels, and approximately
half of these nodes are in the abdomen. Most of the other nodes are positioned on the branches of the
larger lymphatic vessels throughout the body. The exceptions are the three major groups of lymph nodes
that are named for their locations.
Cervical lymph nodes
pertaining to].
Axillary lymph nodes
Inguinal lymph nodes
Additional Structures of the Lymphatic System
pertaining to the lymphatic system or resembling lymph or lymphatic tissue. Although these structures
consist of lymphoid tissue, their primary roles are in conjuction with the immune system.
The Tonsils
the upper throat. These structures play an important role in the immune system by preventing pathogens
from entering the body through the nose and mouth.
The Thymus
thymus is an endocrine gland that assists the immune system.
Peyer's Patches and the Vermiform Appendix
These structures, which consist of lymphoid tissue, work with the immune system to protect against the
entry of pathogens through the digestive system.
large intestine. Recent research indicates that the appendix plays an important role in the immune system.
The Spleen
inferior to [below] the diaphragm and posterior to [behind] the stomach.
* The spleen filters microorganisms and other foreign material from the blood.
* The spleen forms lymphocytes and monocytes, which are specialized white blood cells with roles in the
are located along the sides of the neck[cervic means neck, and -al means
are located under the arms in the area known as the armpits[axill means
armpit, and -ary means pertaining to].
are located in the inguinal[groin] area of the lower abdomen[inguin means
groin, and -al means pertaining to].
The remaining structures of this body system are made up of lymphoid tissue. The term lymphoid means
The tonsils are three masses of lymphoid tissue that form a protective ring around the back of the nose and
* The adenoids, also known as the nasopharyngeal tonsils, are located in the nasopharynx.
* The palatine tonsils are located on the left and right sides of the throat in the area that is visible through
the mouth. Palatine means referring to the hard and soft palates.
* The lingual tonsils are located at the base of the tongue. Lingual means pertaining to tongue.
The thymus is located superior to [above] the heart. Although it is composed largely of lymphoid tissue, the
* Peyer's patches are located on the walls of the ileum. The ileum is last section of the small intestine.
* The vermiform appendix hangs from the lower portion of the cecum. The cecum is the first section of the
The spleen is a saclike mass of lymphoid tissue located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen, just
immune system.
* The spleen has the hemolytic function of destroying worn-out red blood cells and releasing their
* The spleen also stores extra erythrocytes[red blood cells] and maintains the appropriate balance between
these cells and the plasma of the blood.
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures of the Lymphatic System
Lymphadenitis
glands are sometimes used interchangeably. Swelling of the lymph nodes is frequently
an indication of the presence of an infection.
Lymphadenopath
Lymphangioma is a benign tumor formed by an abnormal collection of lymphatic vessels due to a
Persistent generalized is the continued presence of enlarged lymph nodes. PGL is often an
indication of the presence of a malignancy or a deficiency in immune system
function.
Splenomegaly
enlargement]. This condition can be due to bleeding caused by an injury, an infectious
disease such as mononucleosis, or abnormal functioning of the immune system.
Splenorrhagia
Lymphoscintigraphy is a diagnostic test that is performed to detect damage or malformations
of the lymphatic vessels.
Lymphangiographis the radiographic examination of the lymphatic vessels after the injection of a
treatment of lymphomas.
Lymphedema
Primary Lymphedema is a hereditary disorder due to malformation of the lymphatic system. This
condition, which can appear at any time in life, most commonly produces
swelling in the feet and legs.
Secondary lymphedema is caused by damage to the lymphatic system that most commonly preduces
swelling in the limb nearest to the damaged lymphatic vessels. Cancer
treatment [surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation] and trauma [burns,
injuries, and scarring] are the most frequent causes of this condition.
Functions and Structures of the Immune System
for reuse[hem/o means blood, and -lytic means to destroy].
also known as swollen glands, is an inflammation of the lymph nodes[lymphaden
means lymph node, and -itis means inflammation]. The terms lymph nodes and lymph
is any disease process affecting a lymph node or nodes[lymphaden/o means lymph
node, and -pathy means disease].
congenital malformation of the lymphatic system[lymphangi means lymph vessel, and
-oma means tumor].
lymphadenopathy (PGL)
is an abnormal enlargement of the spleen[splen/o means spleen, and -megaly
is bleeding from the spleen[splen/o means spleen, abd -rrhagia means bleeding].
contrast medium[lymphangi/o means lymph vessel, and -graphy means process of
recording]. The resulting lymphangiogram is used primarily to diagnose and monitor
Lymphedema is swelling due to an abnormal accumulation of lymph fluid within the tissues[lymph
lymph, and -edema means swelling].
Functions of the Immune System
The primary function of the immune system is to maintain good health and to protect the body from harmful
substances incuding:
The immune system first attempts to prevent the entry of these harmful substances into the body. If they do
gain entry, the immune system immediately begins working to destroy them.
Structures of the Immune System
Unlike other body systems, the immune system is not contained within a single set of organs or vessels.
Instead, its functions depend on structures from several other body systems.
The First Lines of Defense
lining of the respiratory system. The tonsils form a protective ring around the entrance to the throat. If
foreign matter gets past these barriers, coughing and sneezing help to expel it from the respiratory system.
swallowed or consumed with food.
to attack and destroy pathogens that have succeeded in entering the body.
The Antigen-Antibody Reaction
This reaction labels a potentially dangerous antigen so it can be recognized, and destroyed, by other cells of
the immune system.
and transplanted tissues. The immune system immediately responds to the presence of any antigen.
used interchangeably.
Immunoglobulins
specialized white blood cells that produce antibodies doded to destroy specific antigens.
* Pathogens, which are disease-producing microorganisms.
* Allergens, which are substances that produce allergic reactions.
* Toxins, which are poisonous or harmful substances.
* Malignant cells, which are potentially life-threatening cancer cells.
* Intact skin wraps the body in a physical barrier that prevents invading organisms from entering the body.
Intact means there are no cuts, scrapes, open sores, or breaks in the skin.
* The respiratory system traps breathed-in foreign matter with nose hairs and the moist mucous membrane
* The digestive system uses the acids and enzymes produced by the stomach to destroy invaders that are
* The structures of the lymphatic system, and specialized white blood cells, work together in specific ways
An antigen-antibody reaction, also known as the immune reaction, involves binding antigens to antibodies.
* An antigen is any substance that the body regards as being foreign, and includes viruses, becateria, toxins,
* An allergen is a substance that produces an allergic reaction in an individual.
* An antibody is a disease-fighting protein created by the immune system in response to the presence of a
specific antigen [the prefix anti- means against]. The terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often
Immunoglobulins bind with specific antigens in the antigen-antibody response. The five primary types of
immunoglobulins, which are secreted by plasma cells, are also known as antibodies. Plasma cells are
Immunoglobulins and Their Roles
Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is the most abundant class of antibodies, and they are found in blood serum and
lymph. These antibodies are active against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and foreign particles.
antibodies are found in body secretions such as saliva, sweat, or tears, and function to prevent the
attachment of viruses and bacteria to the epithelial surfaces that line most organs.
first antibodies to appear in response to an initial exposure to an antigen.
These antibodies are responsible for allergic reactions.
Specialized Cells of the Antigen-Antibody Reaction
The immune response requires the actions of many specialized cells.
Lymphocytes
throughout the body.
These changes enable these lymphocytes to act as specialized antibodies that are capable of attacking
to perform a specific function.
B Cells
lymphocyte makes a specific antibody that is capable of destroying a specific antigen.
* B cells are most effective against viruses and bacteria circulating in the blood.
* When a B cell is confronted with the antigen that it is coded to destroy, that B cell is transformed into a
specific antigen.
Dendritic Cells
infections. When such a cell is found the dendritic cells grab, shallow, and internally break apart the captured
antigen.
Fragments of the destroyed antigen are then moved to the surface of the cell where these fragments are
displayed on tentacle-like extensions of the dendritic cell. The purpose of this display is to alert, and
activate, T cells to protect against this specific antigen.
T Cells
* T cells contribute to the immune defense by coordinating immune defenses and by killing infected cells on
Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is the class of antibodies produced predominantly against ingested antigens. These
Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is the class of antibodies that are found in circulating body fluids. These are the
Immunoglobulin D (IgD) is the class of antibodies found only on the surface of B cells. These antibodies are
important in B cell activation which is discussed later in this chapter.
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is the class of antibodies produced in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes.
Note: Synthetic immunoglobulins, which are used as medications, are discussed later in this chapter.
Lymphocytes are white blood cells that are formed in bone marrow as stem cells[lymph/o means lymph, and
-cytes means cells]. These cells undergo further maturation and differentiation in lymphoid tissues
specific antigens. Maturation means the process of becoming mature. Differentiation means to be modified
B cells, also know as B lymphocytes, are specialized lymphocytes that produce and secrete antibodies. Each
plasma B cell. These cells are capable of producing and secreting antibodies that are coded to destroy a
Dendritic cells are specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce
T cells, also known as T lymphocytes, are small lymphocytes that mature in the thymus as a result of
exposure to the hormone thymosin, which is secreted by the thymus.
contact.
stopping their multiplication.
the cells of the immune system. Lymphokines attract macrophages to the infected site and prepare them to
attack the invaders.
immune cells.
Complement
by contact with nonspecific antigens such as foreign blood cells or bacteria. Complement then marks these
foreign invaders and attracts phagocytes to destroy these antigens.
Immunity
Nasal immunity is passed from the mother to her fetus[developing child] before birth. This immunity
lasts only a short time.
Passive immunity is passed from the mother to her child after birth through breast milk.
Acquired immunit
antigen by the immune system either by contracting an infectious disease such as
chickenpox, or by vaccination against a disease such as poliomyelitis[polio].
Vaccination
communicable diseases by the administration of a vaccine to provide acquired
consisting of whole or partial disease-causing organisms, which have been killed or
weakened.
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures of the Immune System
The effectiveness of the immune system depends upon the individual's:
General health If the immune system is compromised by poor health, it cannot be fully effective.
Age Older individuals usually have more acquired immunity; however, their immune
systems tend to respond less quickly and effectively to new challenges. Babies and
very young children do not yet have as much acquired immunity,and their bodies
sometimes have difficulty resisting challenges to the immune system.
Heredity Genes and genetic disorders affect the individual's general health and the functioning
of his or her immune system.
Allergic Reactions
* Interferon is a family of proteins produced by the T cells whose specialty is fighting viruses by slowing or
* Lymphokines, which are produced by the T cells, direct the antigen-antibody response by signaling between
* A macrophage is a type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills invading cells[macro- means large, and
-phage means a cell that eats]. Macrophages also remove dead cells and stimulate the action of other
* A phagocyte is a large white blood cell that can destroy substances such as cell debris, dust, pollen, and
pathogens by the process of phagocytosis[phag/o means to eat or swallow, and -cyte means cell].
Phagocytosis is the process of destroying pathogens by surrounding and swallowing them.
Complement is a group of proteins that normally circulate in the blood in an inactive form and are activated
Immunity is the state of being resistant to a specific disease.
also known as active immunity, is the production of antibodies against a specific
also known as immunization, is proving protection for susceptible individuals from
immunity against a specific disease. A vaccine is a preparation containing an antigen,
food, or animal dander as if it were a angerous invader.
Allergy
Localized allergic
response has come into contact with an allergen. For example, contact with poison ivy can cause
a localized allergic response in the form of an itchy rash. Although the body reacts
mildly the first time it is exposed to the allergen, sensitivity is established, and future
contacts can cause much more-severe symptoms.
Systemic reaction
to an allergen. The symptoms of this response develop quickly. Without medical aid,
th patient can die within a few minutes.
Scratch test is a diagnostic test to identify commonly throublesome allergens such as tree pollen
and ragweed. Swelling and itching indicate an allergic reaction.
Antihistamines are medications administered to relieve or prevent the symptoms of hay fever, which
is a common allergy to wind-borne pollens, and other types of allergies. Antihistamines
body that causes the itching, sneezing, runny nose, and watery eyes of an elleric
reaction.
Autoimmune Disorders
characterized by a condition in which the immune system produces antibodies against its own tissues. This
abnormal functioning of the immune system appears to be genetically transmitted and predominantly occurs
in women during the childbearing years. Autoimmune disorders affect most body systems.
Immunodeficiency Disorders
weakened, reduced, absent, or not functioning properly.
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus
damages or kills the cells of the immune system, causing it to progressively fail, thus leaving the body at
risk of developing many life-threatening opportunistic infections. In the early stages of HIV, medical
intervention can prolong the patient's life.
Opportunistic infection is caused by a pathogen that does not normally produce an illness in healthy
humans. However, when the host is debilitated, these pathogens are able to
Because the immune systems of patients with HIV or AIDS are weakened,
many opportunistic infections can develop.
Acquired immunodeficienc
syndrome infection.
Kaposi's sarcoma is an example of an opportunistic infection that is frequently associated with HIV. This
cancer causes patches of abnormal tissue to grow under the skin, in the lining of the
An allergic reaction occurs when the body's immune system reacts to a harmless allergen such as pollen,
also known as hypersensitivity, is an overreaction by the body to a particular antigen.
also known as cellular response, includes redness, itching, and burning where the skin
which is also described as anaphylaxis or as anaphylactic shock, is a severe response
work by preventing the effects of histamine, which is a substance produced by the
An autoimmune disorder, also known as an autoimmune disease, is any of a large group of diseases
An immunodeficiency disorder occurs when the immune response is compromised. Compromised
The human immunodeficiency virus, commonly known as HIV, is a bloodborne infection in which the virus
cause an infection. Debilitated means weakened by another condition.
commonly known as AIDS, is the most advanced, and fatal, stage of an HIV
mouth, nose, and throat, or in other organs.
ELISA
screen for the presence of HIV antibodies.
Western blot test is a blood test that produces more accurate resuts than the ELISA test. The Western
blot test is performed to confirm the diagnosis when the results of the ELISA test are
result in which the test erroneously indicates the presence of HIV.
Body System Autoimmune Disorder
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Cardiovascular System
Digestive System
Nervous System
Integumentary System
Endocrine System
Treatment of the Immune System
A variety of treatment procedures are used to correct or control the symptoms of disorders of the immune
system.
Immunotherapy
* In the treatment of cancers, immunotherapy is used to stimulate the immune response to fight the
* In the treatment of allergies, immunotherapy is used to repress the body's sensitivity to a particular
allergy desensitization.
Antibody Therapy
Synthetic immunoglobulin
measure against certain viruses, including rabies and some types of
virus, for example, has been bitten by an animal with rabies. The goal of
this treatment is to prevent the disease from developing.
Synthetic interferon is used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, hepatitis C, and some cancers.
which is the acronym for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, is a blood test used to
positive. This is necessary because the ELISA test sometimes produces a false positive
Examples of Autoimmune Disorders and the Affected Body Parts
Rheumatoid arthritis affects joints and connective tissue.
Myasthenia gravis affects nerve and muscle synapses.
Pernicious anemia affects the red blood cells.
Crohns disease affects the intestines, ileum, or the colon.
Multiple sclerosis affects the brain and spinal cord.
Alopecia areata affects the hair follicles.
Lupus erythematosus affects the skin, connective tissue, and joints.
Scleroderma affects the skin and connective tissues.
Vitiligo affects melanin within the skin.
Type 1 diabetes mellitus, affects the insulin-producing pancreatic cells.
Graves disease affects the thyroid gland.
Hashimoto's thyroiditis affects the thyroid gland.
Immunotherapy is a disease treatment that involves either stimulating or repressing the immune response
[immun/o means immune, and -therapy means treatment].
malignancy. Stimulate means to cause greater activity.
allergen. Repress means to decrease, slow, or stop a normal response. This treatment is also known as
also known as immune serum, are used as a postexposure preventive
hepatitis. Postexposure means that the patient has been exposed to the
Monoclonal antibodies are any of a class of antibodies produced in the laboratory by identical
offspring of a clone of specific cells. These artificially produced antibodies
are used to enhance the patient's immune response to certain malignancies,
including some non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, melanoma, breast cancer, and
Immunosuppression
t stimulation by antigens.
Immunosuppressais a substance that prevents or reduces the body's normal immune response. This
medication is administered to prevent the rejection of donor tissue and to depress
autoimmune disorders.
Corticosteroid dr is a hormone-like preparation administered primarily as an anti-inflammatory and as an
immunosuppressant.
Cytotoxic drug
means pertaining to]. These drugs are used as immunosuppressants or as
antineoplastics. Antineoplastics are discussed under "Chemotherapy"
later in this chapter.
Pathogenic Organisms
Bacteria
humans. Bacteria that are pathogenic in humans incude bacilli, rickettsia, spirochetes, staphylococci, and
streptococci.
Bacilli
patient cannot open his or her mouth or swallow.
Rickettsia
to humans by the bite of an infected tick. The signs and symptoms of this serious
disease include a fever of sudden onset, headache, and muscle pain followed by the
development of a rash.
Spirochetes are spiral-shaped bacteria that have flexible walls and are capable of movement.
to humans by the bite of an infected deer tick. Symptoms include fever, headache,
fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash. If left untreated, this infection can spread to
the joints, heart, and nervous system.
colon cancer. Monoclonal means pertains to a single clone of cells. As used
here, a clone is an exact replica of a group of bacteria.
Immunosuppression is treatment to repress or interfere with the ability of the immune system to respond
is a medication that kills or damages cells[cyt/o means cell, tox means poison, and
A pathogen is a microorganism that causes a disease in humans. A microorganism is a living organism that
is so small it can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. Pathogenic means capable of producing disease.
Bacteria are one-celled microscopic organisms[singular, bacterium]. Most bacteria are not harmful to
are rod-shaped spore-forming bacteria[singular,bacillus]. Tetanus is caused by the
bacillus Clostridium tetani, and is transmitted through a cut or wound. Tetanus is
commonly known as lockjaw because it produces muscle spasms that are so severe a
is a small bacterium that lives in lice, fleas, ticks, and mites[plural, rickettsiae].
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, which is caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, is transmitted
Lyme disease, which is caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, is transmitted
Staphylococci are a group of about 30 species of bacteria that form irregular groups or clusters
reside normally on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other organisms;
however, others are capable of producing very serious infections.
Staphylococcus
aureus and causes serious problems such as toxic shock syndrome or produces food poisoning.
Streptococci
are harmless; however, other members of this group are responsible for illness
Septic Shock
Toxins released by these pathogens can produce direct tissue damage resulting in low blood pressure. This
damage causes vital organs [the brain, heart, kidneys, and liver] to not function properly or to fail
completely. Septic shock occurs most often in the very odd old the very young. It also occurs in those with
underlying or debilitating illnesses.
Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
bacteria it targets. When this occurs, the surviving bacteria become resistant to that particular drug. When
more and more bacteria become resistant to first-line treatments, the consequences are severe, as illnesses
last longer, and the risks of complications and death increase.
The first symptom of MRSA looks like a small, red bumps with a black top. These bumps soon become
red-hot abscesses that require immediate care. MRSA infections are serious, difficult to treat, and can be
fatal. Originally these infections were nosocomial[hospital acquired]; however, MRSA infections are
increasingly present in the general population.
Fungus, Yeast, and Parasites
develops between toes and on the feet.
on the skin or mucous membranes in the warm, moist areas such as the vagina or the mouth.
transferred to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. Symptoms develop from 7 days to 4 weeks after
being infected and include fever, shaking chills, headache, muscle aches, and tiredness.
contact with contaminated feces. If a woman contracts this condition during pregnancy, it can result in
resembling grapes[singular, staphylococcus]. Most staphylococci are harmless and
also known as staph aureus, is a form of staphylococci that commonly infects wounds
Toxic shock syndrome is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused by bacterial toxins.
are bacteria that form a chain[singular, streptococcus]. Many streptococcal species
uncluding strep throat, meningitis, endocarditis, and necrotizing fascitis.
Septic shock is a serious condition that occurs when an overwhelming bacterial infection affects the body.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria, also known as superbugs, develop when an antibiotic fails to kill all of the
* Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, commonly known as MRSA, is resistant to most antibiotics.
* A fungus is a simple prasitic organism[plural, fungi]. Some of these fungi are harmless to humans, others
are pathogenic. Tinea pedis, commonly known as athlete's foot, is a fungal infection that commonly
* Yeast is a type of fungus. Candidiasis, formerly known as moniliasis, is now also known as a yeast
infection or thrush. These infections, which are caused by the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, occur
* A parasite is a plant or animal that lives on, or within, another living organism at the expense of that
organism. For example, malaria is a disease caused by a parasite that lives in certain mosquitoes that is
* Another parasite is toxoplasmosis which is most commonly transmitted from animals[pets] to humans by
abnormalities in the developing child such as microcephalus or hydrocephalus. Microcephalus is an
cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the ventricles of the brain. For this reason, it is recommended that
pregnant women not perform tasks such as cleaning a kitty-litter box.
Viruses
the cell, the virus reproduces and then breaks the cell wall to release the newly formed viruses. These
viruses spread to other cells and repeat the process.
Viral Infections
Herpes zoster
skin eruptions that follow the underlying route of an inflamed nerve. This inflammation
occurs when the dormant varicella[chickenpox] virus is reactivated later in life. A
vaccine is available to prevent such reoccurance.
Infectious
mononucleosis characterized by fever, a sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes. Swelling of the
spleen or liver involvement can also develop.
Measles
by respiratory droplets. Symptoms include a high fever, runny nose, coughing,
to light. Complications of measles can be serious.
Mumps is an acute viral disease characterized by the swlling of the parotid glands, which are
the salivary glands located just in front of the ears. In adults, mumps can also cause
painful swelling of the ovaries or testicles.
Rubella
by a fine, pink rash. Although not usually severe or long lasting, rubella is serious in a
woman during early pregnancy because of its ability to cause defects in a developing
fetus. Measles and rubella share similar symptoms, and in fact the term "German"
Rabies is an acute viral infection that is most commonly transmitted to humans by the bite or
saliva of an infected animal. In humans, signs and symptoms of rabies usually occur
30-90 days after the bite. Once symptoms develop, rabies is almost always fatal. If at
risk, it is necessary to undergo testing immediately so that postexposure treatment
can be started as quickly as possible.
Varicella
contagious. This condition is characterized by a fever and a rash consisting of hundreds
of itchy, fluid-filled blisters that burst and forms crusts.
West Nile virus is spread to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. A mild form of this condition
has flu-like symptoms. A more severe variety spreads to the spinal cord and brain.
Cytomegalovirus
abnormally small head and underdeveloped brain. Hydrocephalus is a condition in which excess
Viruses are very small infectious agents that live only by invading other cells[singular, virus]. After invading
which is also known as shingles, is an acute viral infection characterized by painful
also known as mono, is caused by the Epstein-Barr virus(EBV). This condition is
is an acute, highly contagious infection caused by the rubeola virus and transmitted
photophobia, and a red, itchy rash over the entire body. Photophobia means sensitivity
also known as German measles or 3-day measles, is a viral infection characterized
measles comes from the Latin word "germanus", meaning similar.
The measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination(MMR) can prevent these three viral conditions.
also known as chickenpox, is caused by the herpes virus Varicella zoster and is highly
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the herpesvirus family that cause a variety of diseases[cyt/o
signs of symptoms of the infection.
* CMV can potentially cause a serious illness when the individual has a weakened immune system.
* CMV can be transmitted from the mother to her unborn child. This transmission can cause serious
congenital disabilities in the child.
Medications to Control Infections
Antibiotics are medications that are capable of inhibiting growth, or killing pathogenic bacterial
against viral infections.
Bactericide
means causing death]. This group of antibiotics includes penicillins and cephalosporins.
tetracycline, sulfonamide, and erythromycin.
Antifungal
antifungal that is applied to treat, or prevent, athlete's foot. This type of medication
Antiviral drug such as acyclovir, is used to treat viral infections or to provide temporary immunity
Oncology
Cancer can attack all body systems and is the second leading cause of death in the United States after
heart conditions.
Tumors
life-threatening].
Benign tumor is a noncancerous growth; however, these tumors can cause problems by placing
Malignant tumor is harmful, capable of spreading to distant body sites including other body system, can
become progressively worse, and is progressively life-threatening. For example, a
cell, megal/o means large, vir means virus, and -us is a singular noun ending].
* CMV is found in most body fluids and can be present as a silent infection in which the individual has no
microorganisms[anti- means against, bio means life, and -tic means pertaining to].
Inhibit means to slow the growth or development. Antibiotics are not effective
is a substance that causes the death of bacteria[bacteri means bacteria, and -cide
A bacteriostatic is an agent that slows or stops the growth of bacteria[bacteri means
bacteria, and -static means causing control]. This group of antibiotics includes
is an agent that destroys or inhibits the growth of fungi[anti- means against, fung
means fungus, and -al means pertaining to]. Lotrimin is an example of a topical
is also known as an antimycotic.
[anti- means against, vir means virus, and -al means pertaining to].
Oncology is the study of the prevention, causes, and treatment of tumors and cancer[onc means tumor,
and -ology means the study of]. Most cancers are named for the part of the body where the cancer originated.
A tumor, which is also known as a neoplasm, is a growth of tissue that forms an abnormal mass. Within
this mass, the multiplication of cells is uncontrolled, abnormally rapid, and progressive[neo- means new or
strange, and -plasm means formation].
* A tumor can be benign [not life-threatening] or malignant [harmful, capable of spreading, and potentially
pressure on adjacent structures. For example, a myoma is a benign tumor made up of
muscle tissue[my means muscle, and -oma means tumor].
myosarcoma is a malignant tumor derived from muscle tissue[myo means muscle,
sarc means flesh, and -oma means tumor].
Angiogenesis is the process through which the tumor supports its growth by creating its own blood
Antiangiogenesis
Cancer
to invade other tissues, either by invasion through direct growth into adjacent tissue or by spreading into
distant sites by metastasizing.
the primary site and metastasize[spread] to a secondary site.
means stopping]. The metastasis can be within the same body system or within another body system at a
Carcinomas
tumor]. Epithelial tissue forms the protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the
body.
* Carcinomas tend to infiltrate and produce metastases that can affect any organ or part of the body.
Sarcomas
Hard tissue sarcomas
tumor usually involving the upper shaft of long bones, the pelvis, or knee
Soft tissue sarcomas arise from tissues such as muscle, connective tissues such as tendons, blood
is a malignant tumor of the tissue surrounding a synovial joint. The most
common locations are the knee, ankle, shoulder, and hip.
Liquid tissue sarcomas
blood.
Kaposi's sarcoma may affect the skin, mocous membranes, lymph nodes, and internal organs. This
form of cancer is frequently associated with HIV.
Staging
supply[angi/o means vessel, and -genesis means reproduction]. Angiogenesis is the
oppposite of antiangiogenesis.
is a form of treatment that disrupts this blood supply to the tumor[anti- means against,
angi/o means vessel, and -genesis means reproduction]. Antiangiogenesis is the
opposite of angiogenesis.
Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells
* To metastasize is the process by which cancer spreads from one place to another. The cancer moves from
* A metastasis is a new cancer site that results from the spreading process[meta- means beyond, and
distance from the primary site[plural, metastases].
A carcinoma is a malignant tumor that occurs in epithelial tissue[carcin means cancer, and -oma means
* Carcinoma in situ describes a malignant tumor in its original position that has not yet disturbed or invaded
the surrounding tissues. In situ means in the place where the cancer first occurred.
* For example, an adenocarcinoma is any one of a large group of carcinomas derived from glandular tissue
[aden/o means gland, carcin means cancer, and -oma means tumor].
A sarcoma is a malignant tumor that arises from connective tissues, including hard tissues, soft tissues, and
liquid tissues[sarc means flesh, and -oma means tumor] [plural, sarcomas or sarcomata].
arise from bone or cartilage. For example, an osteosarcoma is a malignant
[oste/o means bone, sarc means flesh, and -oma means tumor].
and lymphatic vessels, nerves, and fat. For example, a synovial sarcoma
arise from blood and lymph. One example is leukemia, which affects the
potential for its responding to therapy, and the patient's prognosis. Specific staging systems are used for
different types of cancer.
Lymphomas
types of lymphomas are Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Hodgkin's lymphoma
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
There are many different types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, some
aggressive[fast-growing] and some indolent[slow-growing].
Breast Cancer
nodes and other body sites. There are several types of breast cancer named for their location or amount of
spreading.
Ductal carcinoma in situ is breast cancer in its earliest stage before the cancer has broken through
the wall of the milk duct. At this stage, the cure rate is nearly 100%.
Infiltrating ductal carcino
through the wall of that duct, and invades the fatty breast tissue. This form
of tissue in which it developed and the cancer is now growing into
surrounding, healthy tissues.
Infiltrating lobular carcin
glands[lobules], breaks through the wall of the gland, and invades the fatty
tissue of the breast. Once this cancer reaches the lymph nodes, it can
rapidly spread to distant parts of the body.
Inflammatory breast cance(IBC) is the most aggressive and least common form of breast cancer. IBC
grows rapidly, and symptoms include pain, rapid increase in the breast size,
redness or a rash on the breast, and the swelling of nearby lymph nodes. IBC
can be detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); however, it is not
detected by mammography or ultrasound.
Male breast cancer can occur in the small amount of breast tissue that is usually present in men.
The types of cancers are similar to those occurring in women.
Stage Explanation
I The cancer is no larger than two centimeters [about one inch] and has not spread outside the
breast.
II Any of the following may be true:
Staging is the process of classifying tumors with respect to how far the disease has peogressed, the
Lymphoma is a general term applied to malignancies affecting lymhoid tissues[lymph means lymph, and
-oma means tumor]. This includes lymph nodes, the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. The two most common
also known as Hodgkin's disease, is distinguished from other lymphomas by
the presence of large, cancerous lymphocytes known as Reed-Sternberg cells
is the term used to describe all lymphomas other than Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Breast cancer is a carcinoma that develops from the cells of the breast and can spread to adjacent lymph
also known as invasive ductal carcinoma, starts in the milk duct, breaks
of cancer accounts for the majority of all breast cancers. Infiltrating and
invasive are terms used to describe cancer that has spread beyond the layer
also known as invasive lobular carcinoma, is cancer that starts in the milk
Staging Breast Cancer
The cancer is no larger than two centimeters but has spread to the axillary lymph nodes.
The cancer is between two and five centimeters [from one to two inches] and may or may not
have spread to the axillary lymph nodes.
The cancer is larger than five centimeters [greater than two inches] but has not spread to the
axillary lymph nodes.
IIIA Either of the following is true:
The cancer is smaller than five centimeters and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes and the
lymph nodes are attached to each other or to other structures.
The cancer is larger than five centimeters and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes.
IIIB Either of the following is true:
The cancer has spread to tissues near the breast [skin or chest wall, including the ribs and
muscles of the chest].
The cancer has spread to lymph nodes inside the chest wall and along the breastbone.
IV The cancer has spread to other organs of the body, most often the bones, lungs, liver, or brain.
Or, the cancer has spread locally to the skin and lymph nodes inside the neck, near the collarbone.
Detection of Breast Cancer
Early detection of breast cancer is very important and utilizes the following techniques.
Breast self-examination is an essential self-care procedure for the early detection of breast cancer.
The focus of this self-examination is checking for a new lump or for changes
in an existing lump, shape of the nipple, or the skin covering the breast.
Professional palpation is performed to feel the texture, size, and consistency of the breast.
of the breast
Mammography is a radiographic examination of the breasts to detect the presence of
the process of producing a picture or record]. The resulting record is a
Ultrasound is used as an initial follow-up test when an abnormality is found by mammography.
Surgical biopsy is the removal of a small piece of tissue for examination to confirm or
After a diagnosis has been established, treatment is then based on the
stage of the cancer.
Needle breast biopsy is a technique in which an x-ray-guided needle is used to remove small
samples of tissue from the breast. It is less painful and disfiguring than a
surgical biopsy.
Sentinel-node biopsy after the sentinel lymph node has been identified, only this and the other
affected nodes are removed for biopsy. If the cancer has not spread, this
lymph node to come into contact with cancer cells as they leave the organ of
origination and start spreading into the rest of the body.
Lymph node dissection is a surgical procedure in which all of the lymph nodes in a major group are
removed to determine or slow the spread of cancer. For example, an
tumors or precancerous cells[mamm/o means breast, and -graphy means
mammogram.
establish a diagnosis[bi- means pertaining to life, and -opsy means view of].
spares the remaining nodes in that group. The sentinel node is the first
axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) is sometimes performed as part of
the surgical treatment of the breast.
Surgical Treatment of Breast Cancer
Lumpectomy is the surgical removal of only thre cancerous tissue and a surrounding margin of
normal tissue.
Mastectomy
means surgical removal]. Although simply described as a mastectomy, this procedure
often includes the removal of axillary lymph noses under the adjacent arm.
Modified radical is the surgical removal of the entire breast and all of the axillary lymph nodes under
mastectomy the adjacent arm.
Radical mastecto is the surgical removal of an entire breast and many of the surrounding tissues.
Cancer Treatments
The most common forms of cancer treatments are surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
Surgery
Most commonly cancer surgery involves removing the malignancy plus a margin of normal surrounding
tissue. It may also involve the removal of one or more nearby lymph nodes to detect whether the cancer
has stated to spread.
Chemotherapy
cells and tissues.
Chemopreventionis the use of natural synthetic substances such as drugs or vitamins to reduce the risk
of developing cancer, or to reduce the chance that cancer will recur. Chemoprevention
may also be used to reduce the size or slow the development of an existing tumor.
Antineoplastic is medication that blocks the development, growth, or proliferation of malignant cells
Cytotoxic drugs are also used for both immunosuppression and chemotherapy.
Radiation Therapy
sparing healthy tissues.
Brachytherapy is the use of radioactive materials in contact with, or implanted into, the tissues to
Teletherapy
imaging, it is possible to aim doses more precisely.
Additional Therapies
Adjuvant therapy is used after the primary treatments have been completed to decrease the chance that
is the surgical removal of the entire breast and nipple[mast means breast, and
Chemotherapy is the use of chemical agents and drugs in combinations selected to destroy malignant
[anti- means against, ne/o means new, plast means growth or formation, and
means pertaining to]. Proliferation means to increase rapidly.
Radiation therapy is used in the treatment of some cancers, with the goal of destroying the cancer while
be treated[brachy- means short, and -therapy means treatment].
is radiation therapy administered at a distance from the body[tele- means distant,
and -therapy means treatment]. With the assistance of three-dimensional computer
a cancer will recur. The term adjuvant refers to an agent intended to increase the
effectiveness of a drug; however, adjuvant treatments for cancer can also include
chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy.
Targeted therapy is a developing form if anti-cancer drug therapy that uses drugs or other substances
to indentify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. A
monoclonal antibody is a type of targeted therapy.
Abbreviations
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
A anaphylaxis
A, Ab antibody
AG, Ag antigen
BACT, bacteria
Bact, bact
BSE breast self-examination
CA, Ca carcinoma
CIS carcinoma in situ
CMV cytomegalovirus
DCIS ductal carcinoma in situ
ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
EBV Epstein-Barr virus
HZ herpes zoster
HL Hodgkin's lymphoma
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
IG immunoglobulin
IT immunotherapy
IM infectious mononucleosis
IDC infiltrating ductal carcinoma, invasive ductal carcinoma
ILC infiltrating lobar carcinoma, invasive lobar carcinoma
IF interferon, interstitial fluid
KS Kaposi's sarcoma
LE lymphedema
MET metastasis
met metastasize
MABS monoclonal antibodies
NHL non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
PGL persistent generalized lymphadenopathy
Rick rickettsia
TB tuberculosis
VSZ varicella
pathogens, and dead blood cells from the tissues.
Filter pathogens and harmful substances from the
Filters foreign materials from the blood. Maintains
the approriate balance between cells and plasma in
the blood. Destroys worn-out blood cells, releases
Produces blood cells. [also refers to the spinal cord]
maturation of T lymphocytes for use by the immune
Defends the body against harmful substances, such as
pathogenic microorganisms, allergens, toxins, and
The lymphatic and immune systems work in close cooperation to protect and maitain the health of the body.
Some functions and structures of these systems are perfomed by specialized structures or shared structures.
specializes in diagnosing and treating conditions of altered immunologic reactivity,
is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating malignant disorders such as
specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the immune system[immun means
The lymphatic system performs three primary functions in cooperation with other body systems. These are:
* Absorbing fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine or digestive system and transport them
* Removing waste from the tissues; then filters and returns this excess tissue fluid to the cirulatory system.
Food is digested in the small intestine. From here, the nutrients, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed
* The blood vessels in the villi absorb most of the nutrients from the digested food directly into the
* Fats and fat-soluble vitamins that cannot be absorbed directly into the bloodstream are absorbed and
The lymphatic system removes waste products and excess fluids created by the cells. It also destroys
The lymph nodes play an active role in cooperation with the immune system to protect the body against
The major structures of the lymphatic system are lymph, lymphatic vessels and ducts, and lymph nodes.
Additional structures include the tonsils, thymus, spleen, lacteals, Peyer's patches, the vermiform appendix,
and lymphocytes. Lymphocytes, which are specialized white blood cells, have roles in both the lymphatic and
clear, watery fluid that transports waste products and proteins out of the spaces between the cells of the
body tissues. It also destroys bacteria or other pathogens that are present in the tissues. Lymph must be
Because the lymphatic vessels are closely aligned with those of the cardiovascular system, the lymphatic
are small finger-like projections that line the small intestine. These structures contain blood
transports lymph from tissues throughout the body and eventually returns this fluid
is the remaining intercellular fluid that has not been resorbed. Lymph is a
. Despite the similarities, there are
* Blood circulates throughout the entire body. Lymph flows in only one direction, from its point of origin
* Blood flows in an open system in which it leaves, and re-enters, the blood vessels through the capillaries.
Lymphatic circulation is a closed system. From the time lymph enters the lymphatic capillaries, it does not
* Blood is pumped throughout the body by the heart. The lymphatic system does not have a pump-like organ.
Instead, lymph must depend on help from the movements of nearby muscles and blood vessels to aid in its
* The color of the blood makes the arteries and veins readily visible. Lymph is a clear fluid, and the
* Blood is filtered by the kidneys, and waste products are excreted by the urinary system. Lymph is filtered
the capillaries and into the spaces between the cells. This interstitial fluid transports food, oxygen, and
* The remaining 10% of the interstitial fluid that was not reabsorbed becomes lymph. It is transported by the
walls are only one cell in thickness. These cells separate briefly to allow lymph to enter the capillary, and the
deeper within the tissues. Like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent the backward flow of lymph.
The larger lymphatic vessels eventually join together to form two ducts. Each duct drains a specific part of
quadrant of the body and the right arm. The right lymphatic duct empties into the right subclavian vein.
the head and neck, and upper left quadrant of the trunk, the left arm, and the entire lower portion of the
pathogens. Unfiltered lymph flows into the nodes, and here the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances such
as bacteria, viruses, and malignant cells. Additional structures within the node filter the lymph to remove
, is plasma from arterial blood that flows out of
* About 90% of this fluid is reabsorbed by the capillaries and returned to the venous circulation. Reabsorbed
are microscopic, blind-ended tubes located near the surface of the body. The capillary
lymphatic vessels, which are located
collects lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the upper right
, which is the largest tymphatic vessel in the body, collects lymph from the left side of
contains specialized lymphocytes that are capable of destroying
additional impurities. After these processes are complete, the lymph leaves the node and continues its
There are between 400 and 700 lymph nodes located along the larger lymphatic vessels, and approximately
half of these nodes are in the abdomen. Most of the other nodes are positioned on the branches of the
larger lymphatic vessels throughout the body. The exceptions are the three major groups of lymph nodes
pertaining to the lymphatic system or resembling lymph or lymphatic tissue. Although these structures
the upper throat. These structures play an important role in the immune system by preventing pathogens
These structures, which consist of lymphoid tissue, work with the immune system to protect against the
large intestine. Recent research indicates that the appendix plays an important role in the immune system.
* The spleen forms lymphocytes and monocytes, which are specialized white blood cells with roles in the
means neck, and -al means
are located under the arms in the area known as the armpits[axill means
are located in the inguinal[groin] area of the lower abdomen[inguin means
lymphoid means
are three masses of lymphoid tissue that form a protective ring around the back of the nose and
are located on the left and right sides of the throat in the area that is visible through
is located superior to [above] the heart. Although it is composed largely of lymphoid tissue, the
is last section of the small intestine.
is the first section of the
is a saclike mass of lymphoid tissue located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen, just
* The spleen also stores extra erythrocytes[red blood cells] and maintains the appropriate balance between
glands are sometimes used interchangeably. Swelling of the lymph nodes is frequently
is a benign tumor formed by an abnormal collection of lymphatic vessels due to a
indication of the presence of a malignancy or a deficiency in immune system
enlargement]. This condition can be due to bleeding caused by an injury, an infectious
disease such as mononucleosis, or abnormal functioning of the immune system.
is a diagnostic test that is performed to detect damage or malformations
is the radiographic examination of the lymphatic vessels after the injection of a
is a hereditary disorder due to malformation of the lymphatic system. This
condition, which can appear at any time in life, most commonly produces
is caused by damage to the lymphatic system that most commonly preduces
swelling in the limb nearest to the damaged lymphatic vessels. Cancer
treatment [surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation] and trauma [burns,
, is an inflammation of the lymph nodes[lymphaden
means inflammation]. The terms lymph nodes and lymph
lymphaden/o means lymph
means lymph vessel, and
means spleen, and -megaly means
means bleeding].
means process of
is used primarily to diagnose and monitor
is swelling due to an abnormal accumulation of lymph fluid within the tissues[lymph means
The primary function of the immune system is to maintain good health and to protect the body from harmful
The immune system first attempts to prevent the entry of these harmful substances into the body. If they do
Unlike other body systems, the immune system is not contained within a single set of organs or vessels.
lining of the respiratory system. The tonsils form a protective ring around the entrance to the throat. If
foreign matter gets past these barriers, coughing and sneezing help to expel it from the respiratory system.
This reaction labels a potentially dangerous antigen so it can be recognized, and destroyed, by other cells of
and transplanted tissues. The immune system immediately responds to the presence of any antigen.
wraps the body in a physical barrier that prevents invading organisms from entering the body.
traps breathed-in foreign matter with nose hairs and the moist mucous membrane
uses the acids and enzymes produced by the stomach to destroy invaders that are
, and specialized white blood cells, work together in specific ways
, involves binding antigens to antibodies.
is any substance that the body regards as being foreign, and includes viruses, becateria, toxins,
is a disease-fighting protein created by the immune system in response to the presence of a
immunoglobulin are often
bind with specific antigens in the antigen-antibody response. The five primary types of
Plasma cells are
(IgG) is the most abundant class of antibodies, and they are found in blood serum and
antibodies are found in body secretions such as saliva, sweat, or tears, and function to prevent the
These changes enable these lymphocytes to act as specialized antibodies that are capable of attacking
* When a B cell is confronted with the antigen that it is coded to destroy, that B cell is transformed into a
infections. When such a cell is found the dendritic cells grab, shallow, and internally break apart the captured
Fragments of the destroyed antigen are then moved to the surface of the cell where these fragments are
displayed on tentacle-like extensions of the dendritic cell. The purpose of this display is to alert, and
* T cells contribute to the immune defense by coordinating immune defenses and by killing infected cells on
(IgA) is the class of antibodies produced predominantly against ingested antigens. These
(IgM) is the class of antibodies that are found in circulating body fluids. These are the
(IgD) is the class of antibodies found only on the surface of B cells. These antibodies are
(IgE) is the class of antibodies produced in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes.
lymph/o means lymph, and
means cells]. These cells undergo further maturation and differentiation in lymphoid tissues
means to be modified
, are specialized lymphocytes that produce and secrete antibodies. Each
. These cells are capable of producing and secreting antibodies that are coded to destroy a
are specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce
, are small lymphocytes that mature in the thymus as a result of
the cells of the immune system. Lymphokines attract macrophages to the infected site and prepare them to
by contact with nonspecific antigens such as foreign blood cells or bacteria. Complement then marks these
is passed from the mother to her fetus[developing child] before birth. This immunity
,
antigen by the immune system either by contracting an infectious disease such as
communicable diseases by the administration of a vaccine to provide acquired
consisting of whole or partial disease-causing organisms, which have been killed or
If the immune system is compromised by poor health, it cannot be fully effective.
Older individuals usually have more acquired immunity; however, their immune
systems tend to respond less quickly and effectively to new challenges. Babies and
very young children do not yet have as much acquired immunity,and their bodies
Genes and genetic disorders affect the individual's general health and the functioning
is a family of proteins produced by the T cells whose specialty is fighting viruses by slowing or
, which are produced by the T cells, direct the antigen-antibody response by signaling between
macro- means large, and
means a cell that eats]. Macrophages also remove dead cells and stimulate the action of other
is a large white blood cell that can destroy substances such as cell debris, dust, pollen, and
means cell].
is a group of proteins that normally circulate in the blood in an inactive form and are activated
, is the production of antibodies against a specific
, is proving protection for susceptible individuals from
is a preparation containing an antigen,
has come into contact with an allergen. For example, contact with poison ivy can cause
a localized allergic response in the form of an itchy rash. Although the body reacts
mildly the first time it is exposed to the allergen, sensitivity is established, and future
to an allergen. The symptoms of this response develop quickly. Without medical aid,
is a diagnostic test to identify commonly throublesome allergens such as tree pollen
are medications administered to relieve or prevent the symptoms of hay fever, which
is a common allergy to wind-borne pollens, and other types of allergies. Antihistamines
body that causes the itching, sneezing, runny nose, and watery eyes of an elleric
characterized by a condition in which the immune system produces antibodies against its own tissues. This
abnormal functioning of the immune system appears to be genetically transmitted and predominantly occurs
damages or kills the cells of the immune system, causing it to progressively fail, thus leaving the body at
risk of developing many life-threatening opportunistic infections. In the early stages of HIV, medical
is caused by a pathogen that does not normally produce an illness in healthy
humans. However, when the host is debilitated, these pathogens are able to
Because the immune systems of patients with HIV or AIDS are weakened,
is an example of an opportunistic infection that is frequently associated with HIV. This
cancer causes patches of abnormal tissue to grow under the skin, in the lining of the
occurs when the body's immune system reacts to a harmless allergen such as pollen,
, is an overreaction by the body to a particular antigen.
, includes redness, itching, and burning where the skin
, is a severe response
, which is a substance produced by the
, is any of a large group of diseases
Compromised means
, commonly known as HIV, is a bloodborne infection in which the virus
means weakened by another condition.
, is the most advanced, and fatal, stage of an HIV
is a blood test that produces more accurate resuts than the ELISA test. The Western
blot test is performed to confirm the diagnosis when the results of the ELISA test are
A variety of treatment procedures are used to correct or control the symptoms of disorders of the immune
* In the treatment of cancers, immunotherapy is used to stimulate the immune response to fight the
* In the treatment of allergies, immunotherapy is used to repress the body's sensitivity to a particular
virus, for example, has been bitten by an animal with rabies. The goal of
is used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, hepatitis C, and some cancers.
, is a blood test used to
positive. This is necessary because the ELISA test sometimes produces a false positive
, affects the insulin-producing pancreatic cells.
is a disease treatment that involves either stimulating or repressing the immune response
means to decrease, slow, or stop a normal response. This treatment is also known as
, are used as a postexposure preventive
means that the patient has been exposed to the
are any of a class of antibodies produced in the laboratory by identical
offspring of a clone of specific cells. These artificially produced antibodies
are used to enhance the patient's immune response to certain malignancies,
including some non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, melanoma, breast cancer, and
is a substance that prevents or reduces the body's normal immune response. This
medication is administered to prevent the rejection of donor tissue and to depress
is a hormone-like preparation administered primarily as an anti-inflammatory and as an
humans. Bacteria that are pathogenic in humans incude bacilli, rickettsia, spirochetes, staphylococci, and
to humans by the bite of an infected tick. The signs and symptoms of this serious
disease include a fever of sudden onset, headache, and muscle pain followed by the
are spiral-shaped bacteria that have flexible walls and are capable of movement.
to humans by the bite of an infected deer tick. Symptoms include fever, headache,
fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash. If left untreated, this infection can spread to
means pertains to a single clone of cells. As used
is treatment to repress or interfere with the ability of the immune system to respond
means poison, and -ic
is a living organism that
means capable of producing disease.
]. Most bacteria are not harmful to
is caused by the
, and is transmitted through a cut or wound. Tetanus is
because it produces muscle spasms that are so severe a
Rickettsia rickettsii, is transmitted
Borrelia burgdorferi, is transmitted
are a group of about 30 species of bacteria that form irregular groups or clusters
reside normally on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other organisms;
and causes serious problems such as toxic shock syndrome or produces food poisoning.
are harmless; however, other members of this group are responsible for illness
Toxins released by these pathogens can produce direct tissue damage resulting in low blood pressure. This
completely. Septic shock occurs most often in the very odd old the very young. It also occurs in those with
bacteria it targets. When this occurs, the surviving bacteria become resistant to that particular drug. When
more and more bacteria become resistant to first-line treatments, the consequences are severe, as illnesses
The first symptom of MRSA looks like a small, red bumps with a black top. These bumps soon become
red-hot abscesses that require immediate care. MRSA infections are serious, difficult to treat, and can be
fatal. Originally these infections were nosocomial[hospital acquired]; however, MRSA infections are
transferred to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. Symptoms develop from 7 days to 4 weeks after
contact with contaminated feces. If a woman contracts this condition during pregnancy, it can result in
]. Most staphylococci are harmless and
, is a form of staphylococci that commonly infects wounds
is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused by bacterial toxins.
]. Many streptococcal species
is a serious condition that occurs when an overwhelming bacterial infection affects the body.
, develop when an antibiotic fails to kill all of the
, is resistant to most antibiotics.
]. Some of these fungi are harmless to humans, others
, is a fungal infection that commonly
, is now also known as a yeast
Candida albicans, occur
is a plant or animal that lives on, or within, another living organism at the expense of that
is a disease caused by a parasite that lives in certain mosquitoes that is
which is most commonly transmitted from animals[pets] to humans by
Microcephalus is an
cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the ventricles of the brain. For this reason, it is recommended that
the cell, the virus reproduces and then breaks the cell wall to release the newly formed viruses. These
skin eruptions that follow the underlying route of an inflamed nerve. This inflammation
occurs when the dormant varicella[chickenpox] virus is reactivated later in life. A
characterized by fever, a sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes. Swelling of the
is an acute viral disease characterized by the swlling of the parotid glands, which are
the salivary glands located just in front of the ears. In adults, mumps can also cause
by a fine, pink rash. Although not usually severe or long lasting, rubella is serious in a
woman during early pregnancy because of its ability to cause defects in a developing
fetus. Measles and rubella share similar symptoms, and in fact the term "German"
is an acute viral infection that is most commonly transmitted to humans by the bite or
saliva of an infected animal. In humans, signs and symptoms of rabies usually occur
30-90 days after the bite. Once symptoms develop, rabies is almost always fatal. If at
risk, it is necessary to undergo testing immediately so that postexposure treatment
contagious. This condition is characterized by a fever and a rash consisting of hundreds
is spread to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. A mild form of this condition
has flu-like symptoms. A more severe variety spreads to the spinal cord and brain.
virus]. After invading
, is an acute viral infection characterized by painful
and transmitted
Photophobia means sensitivity
, is a viral infection characterized
Varicella zoster and is highly
(CMV) is a member of the herpesvirus family that cause a variety of diseases[cyt/o means
* CMV can be transmitted from the mother to her unborn child. This transmission can cause serious
are medications that are capable of inhibiting growth, or killing pathogenic bacterial
means causing death]. This group of antibiotics includes penicillins and cephalosporins.
antifungal that is applied to treat, or prevent, athlete's foot. This type of medication
such as acyclovir, is used to treat viral infections or to provide temporary immunity
Cancer can attack all body systems and is the second leading cause of death in the United States after
is a noncancerous growth; however, these tumors can cause problems by placing
is harmful, capable of spreading to distant body sites including other body system, can
become progressively worse, and is progressively life-threatening. For example, a
in which the individual has no
means pertaining to].
means bacteria, and -cide
is an agent that slows or stops the growth of bacteria[bacteri means
means against, fung
means pertaining to]. Lotrimin is an example of a topical
onc means tumor,
means the study of]. Most cancers are named for the part of the body where the cancer originated.
, is a growth of tissue that forms an abnormal mass. Within
neo- means new or
[harmful, capable of spreading, and potentially
is a benign tumor made up of
myo means muscle,
is the process through which the tumor supports its growth by creating its own blood
to invade other tissues, either by invasion through direct growth into adjacent tissue or by spreading into
means stopping]. The metastasis can be within the same body system or within another body system at a
tumor]. Epithelial tissue forms the protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the
* Carcinomas tend to infiltrate and produce metastases that can affect any organ or part of the body.
tumor usually involving the upper shaft of long bones, the pelvis, or knee
arise from tissues such as muscle, connective tissues such as tendons, blood
is a malignant tumor of the tissue surrounding a synovial joint. The most
may affect the skin, mocous membranes, lymph nodes, and internal organs. This
means reproduction]. Angiogenesis is the
anti- means against,
means reproduction]. Antiangiogenesis is the
is a class of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells
means beyond, and -stasis
means cancer, and -oma means
describes a malignant tumor in its original position that has not yet disturbed or invaded
is any one of a large group of carcinomas derived from glandular tissue
is a malignant tumor that arises from connective tissues, including hard tissues, soft tissues, and
osteosarcoma is a malignant
synovial sarcoma
, which affects the
potential for its responding to therapy, and the patient's prognosis. Specific staging systems are used for
nodes and other body sites. There are several types of breast cancer named for their location or amount of
is breast cancer in its earliest stage before the cancer has broken through
through the wall of that duct, and invades the fatty breast tissue. This form
glands[lobules], breaks through the wall of the gland, and invades the fatty
tissue of the breast. Once this cancer reaches the lymph nodes, it can
(IBC) is the most aggressive and least common form of breast cancer. IBC
grows rapidly, and symptoms include pain, rapid increase in the breast size,
redness or a rash on the breast, and the swelling of nearby lymph nodes. IBC
can be detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); however, it is not
can occur in the small amount of breast tissue that is usually present in men.
The cancer is no larger than two centimeters [about one inch] and has not spread outside the
is the process of classifying tumors with respect to how far the disease has peogressed, the
means lymph, and
means tumor]. This includes lymph nodes, the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. The two most common
, is distinguished from other lymphomas by
Reed-Sternberg cells.
Hodgkin's lymphoma.
is a carcinoma that develops from the cells of the breast and can spread to adjacent lymph
, starts in the milk duct, breaks
Infiltrating and
are terms used to describe cancer that has spread beyond the layer
, is cancer that starts in the milk
The cancer is between two and five centimeters [from one to two inches] and may or may not
The cancer is larger than five centimeters [greater than two inches] but has not spread to the
The cancer is smaller than five centimeters and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes and the
The cancer has spread to tissues near the breast [skin or chest wall, including the ribs and
The cancer has spread to other organs of the body, most often the bones, lungs, liver, or brain.
Or, the cancer has spread locally to the skin and lymph nodes inside the neck, near the collarbone.
is an essential self-care procedure for the early detection of breast cancer.
The focus of this self-examination is checking for a new lump or for changes
in an existing lump, shape of the nipple, or the skin covering the breast.
is a radiographic examination of the breasts to detect the presence of
the process of producing a picture or record]. The resulting record is a
is the removal of a small piece of tissue for examination to confirm or
After a diagnosis has been established, treatment is then based on the
is a technique in which an x-ray-guided needle is used to remove small
samples of tissue from the breast. It is less painful and disfiguring than a
after the sentinel lymph node has been identified, only this and the other
affected nodes are removed for biopsy. If the cancer has not spread, this
lymph node to come into contact with cancer cells as they leave the organ of
is a surgical procedure in which all of the lymph nodes in a major group are
means breast, and -graphy means
-opsy means view of].
sentinel node is the first
(ALND) is sometimes performed as part of
is the surgical removal of only thre cancerous tissue and a surrounding margin of
means surgical removal]. Although simply described as a mastectomy, this procedure
is the surgical removal of the entire breast and all of the axillary lymph nodes under
is the surgical removal of an entire breast and many of the surrounding tissues.
Most commonly cancer surgery involves removing the malignancy plus a margin of normal surrounding
tissue. It may also involve the removal of one or more nearby lymph nodes to detect whether the cancer
is the use of natural synthetic substances such as drugs or vitamins to reduce the risk
of developing cancer, or to reduce the chance that cancer will recur. Chemoprevention
may also be used to reduce the size or slow the development of an existing tumor.
is medication that blocks the development, growth, or proliferation of malignant cells
is the use of radioactive materials in contact with, or implanted into, the tissues to
is used after the primary treatments have been completed to decrease the chance that
means breast, and -ectomy
is the use of chemical agents and drugs in combinations selected to destroy malignant
means growth or formation, and -ic
is used in the treatment of some cancers, with the goal of destroying the cancer while
means distant,
means treatment]. With the assistance of three-dimensional computer
refers to an agent intended to increase the
effectiveness of a drug; however, adjuvant treatments for cancer can also include
chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy.
is a developing form if anti-cancer drug therapy that uses drugs or other substances
The Endocrine System
Overview:
Major Structures Related Combining Forms Primary Functions
Adrenal Glands adren/o Regulate electrolyte levels, influence metabolism,
and respond to stress.
Gonads gonad/o Regulate development and maintenance of secondary
Male: testicles sex characteristics.
Female: ovaries
Pancreatic Islets pancreat/o Control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolsim.
Parathyroid Glandparathyroid/o Regulate calcium levels throughout the body.
Pineal Gland pineal/o Influences the sleep-wakefulness cycle.
Pituitary Gland pituit/o, pituitar/o Secretes hormones that control the activity of the
other endocrine glands.
Thymus thym/o Plays a major role in the immune reaction.
Thyroid Gland thyr/o, thyroid/o Stimulates metabolism, growth, and the activity of
the nervous system.
Functions of the Endocrine System
The primary function of the endocrine system is to produce hormones that work together to maintain
in regulating the activities of specific cells, organs, or both.
* Because the hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream, they are able to reach cells and organs
throughout the body. Blood, or urine, tests are used to measure hormone levels.
Structures of the Endocrine System
There are 13 major glands of the endocrine system:
Hormone Source Functions
Adrenal cortex Aids in regulating the levels of salt and water in the body.
homeostasis [constant internal environment] throughout the body systems.
* Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine glands and have specialized functions
* One pituitary gland [divided into two lobes]
* One pineal gland
* One thyroid gland
* Four parathyroid glands
* One thymus
* One pancreas [pancreatic islets]
* Two adrenal glands
* Two gonads [ovaries in females, testes in males]
Hormones From A to T
Aldosterone (ALD)
Androgens Adrenal cortex and Influence sex-related characteristics.
gonads
AdrenocorticotropPituitary gland Stimulates the growth and secretions of the adrenal cortex.
Antidiuretic Secreted by the Helps control blood pressure by reducing the amount of water
hypothalamus, thenthat is excreted.
stored and released
from the pituitary
gland.
Thyroid gland Works with the parathyroid hormone to regulate calcium levels
in the blood and tissues.
Adrenal cortex Regulates the metabolism of carbohydreates, fats, and proteins,
in the body. Also has an anti-inflammatory action.
Epinephrine Adrenal medulla Stimulates the sympathetic nervous system.
(Epi, EPI)
Ovaries Develops and maintains the female secondary sex characteristics
and regulates the menstrual cycle.
Follicle-stimulati Pituitary gland In the female, stimulates the secretion of estrogen and the
growth of ova[eggs]. In the male, stimulates the production
of sperm.
Pancreatic islets Increases the level of glucose in the bloodstream.
(alpha cells)
Growth hormone Pituitary gland Regulates the growth of bone, muscle, and other body tissues.
(GH)
Human chorionic Placenta Stimulates the secretion of the hormones required to maintain
pregnancy.
Insulin Pancreatic islets Regulates the transport of glucose to the body cells and stimulates
(beta cells) the conversion of excess glucose to glycogen for storage.
Interstitial cell- Pituitary gland Stimulates ovulation in the female. Stimulates the secretion of
stimulating testosterone in the male.
Lactogenic Pituitary gland Stimulates and maintains the secretion of breast milk.
Luteinizing Pituitary gland In the female, stimulates ovulation. In the male, stimulates
testosterone secretion.
Melanocyte- Pituitary gland Increases the production of melanin in melanocytes of the skin.
stimulating
Melatonin Pineal gland Influences the sleep-wakefulness cycles.
Norepinephrine Adrenal medulla Stimulates the sympatheic nervous system.
Pituitary gland Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. It also causes
milk to flow from the mammary glands after childbirth.
Parathyroid Parathyroid glands Works with calcitonin to regulate calcium levels in the blood
hormone (ACTH)
hormone (ADH)
Calcitonin (CAL)
Estrogen (E)
hormone (FSH)
Glucagon (GCG)
gonadotropin (HCG)
hormone (ICSH)
hormone (LTH)
hormone (LH)
hormone (MSH)
Oxytocin (OXT)
and tissues.
Progesterone Ovaries Completes preparation of the fetus for possible pregnancy.
Testosterone Testicles Stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics.
Thymosin Thymus Plays an important role in the immune system.
Thyroid gland Regulates the rate of metabolism.
Thyroid-stimulati Pituitary gland Stimulates the secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland.
Specialized types of Hormones
There are several specialized types of hormones that do not fit the tradition hormone definition.
Steroids
produced as medications to relieve swelling and inflammation in conditions such as asthma.
* Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water balance,
development of sexual characteristics, and the ability to withstand illness and injury.
* The term steroid describes both hormones produced by the body and artificially produced medications that
duplicate the action of the naturally occuring steroids.
Anabolic steroids are chemically related to the male sex hormone testosterone. These have been used
illegally by athletes to increase strength and muscle mass. Serious side effects of
anabolic steroid use include liver damage, altered body chemistry, testicular shrinkage,
and breast development in males, plus unpredictable mood swings and violence.
* Steroid use by teenagers also stops long bone development, resulting in shortened
stature.
* The use of steroids usually can be detected through the testing of either blood or
urine.
Hormones secreted by Fat Cells
Fat is not commonly thought of as an endocrine gland; however, research has revealed that fat cells do
secrete at least one, and possibly more, hormones that play an important role in the balance and health of
the body.
* Leptin leaves the fat cells and travels in the bloodstream to brain centers. Here, it acts to control the
balance of food intake and energy expenditure.
* Leptin also affects female reproduction, immune function, and the function of many other hormones,
including insulin.
Neurohormones
cells of the brain. Although produced in the brain, they are able to affect cells throughout distant parts of
the body.
hormone (PTH)
Thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3)
hormone (TSH)
A steroid is any one of a large number of hormone-like substances secreted by endocrine glands or artificially
* Leptin is a hormone secreted by adipocytes [fat cells].
Unlike the hormones, which are secreted by endocrine glands, neurohormones are secreted by specialized
Medical Specialties related to the Endocrine System
Endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and malfunctions of
Pathology of the Endocrine System
Endocrinopathy
Hypercrinism is a condition due to excessive secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland
Hypocrinism is a condition caused by deficient secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland
Diagnostic Procedures related to the Endocrine System
* Nuclear medicine and imaging techniques are used to diagnose and treat disorders affecting the endocrine
system.
* Hormone levels are measured by blood or urine tests.
The Pituitary Gland
Functions of the Pituitary Gland
The primary function of the pituitary gland is to secrete hormones that control the activity of other endocrine
glands. The pituitary acts in response to stimuli from the hypothalamus. This creates a system of checks and
balances to maintain an appropriate blood level of each hormone.
The Hypothalamus
the neurohormone is secreted by, or acts on, a part of the nervous system.
Secretions of the Pituitary Gland: Anterior Lobe
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol.
stimulates the secretion of estrogen and the growth of ova[eggs]
in the ovaries of the female. In the male, it stimulates the
production of sperm in the testicles.
the endocrine glands[endocrin means to secrete within, and -ologist means specialist].
is any disease caused by a disorder of the endocrine system[endo- means within,
crin/o means to secrete, and -pathy means disease].
[hyper- means excessive, crin means to secrete, and -ism means condition].
Hypercrinism is the opposite of hypocrinism.
[hypo- means deficient, crin means to secrete, and -ism means condition].
Hypocrinism is the opposite of hypercrinism.
The pea-sized pituitary gland, which is composed of anterior and posterior lobes, hangs from the
infundibulum below the hypothalamus, which is part of the brain. An infundibulum is a stalk-like structure.
The hypothalamus, which is part of the brain, secretes neurohormones that enable it to communicate with
the other parts of the body. A neurohormone is unlike a hormone secreted by the endocrine glands because
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Growth hormone (GH) also known as somatotropic hormone, regulates the growth of bone, muscle,
affinity for].
Interstitial cell-stimulatingstimulates ovulation in the female. In the male, it stimulates the secretion
of testosterone.
milk in the mother after childbirth.
stimulates ovulation in the female and production of the female sex hormone
progesterone. In the male, LH stimulates the secretion of testosterone.
Melanocyte-stimulating increases the production of melanin in melanocytes, thereby causing
hormone darkening the pigmentation of the skin.
Thyroid-stimulating stimulates the growth and secretions of the thyroid gland.
Secretions of the Pituitary Gland: Posterior Lobe
Antidiuretic hormone maintains the water balance within the body by promoting the reabsoption
of water through the kidneys. When more antidiuretic hormone is secreted,
administered to increase urine secretion.
Oxytocin
labor]. After childbirth, oxytocin stimulates the flow of milk from the mammary glands.
Pathology of the Pituitary Gland
Acromegaly is abnormal enlargement of the extremities [hands and feet] that is caused by
Gigantism
Hyperpituitarism is pathology resulting in the excessive secretion by the anterior lobe of the pituitary
Hypopituitarism is a condition of reduced secretion due to the partial, or complete, loss of the function
Pituitarism
Pituitary adenom
The two types of these tumors are functioning and nonfunctioning pituitary tumors.
Prolactinoma
that causes it to produce too much prolactin. In females, this overproduction causes
infertility and changes in menstruation. In males, it causes impotence.
and other body tissues[somat/o means body, and -tropic means having an
hormone (ICSH)
Lactogenic hormone (LTH) also known as prolactin, stimulates and maintains the secretion of breast
Luteinizing hormone
hormone (TSH)
less urine is produced. In contrast, a diuretic is a medication that is
stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth[oxy- means swift, and -tocin means
Pitocin is a synthetic form of oxytocin that is adminstered to induce or speed up labor.
excessive secretion of growth hormone after puberty[acr/o means extremities, and
-megaly means enlargement]. Contrast with gigantism.
also known as giantism, is abnormal overgrowth of the entire body that is caused by
excessive secretion of the growth hormone before puberty. Contrast with acromegaly
gland[hyper- means excessive, pituitar means pituitary, and -ism means condition].
Hyperpituitarism is the opposite of hypopituitarism.
of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland[hypo- means deficient, pituitar means
pituitary, and -ism means condition]. Hypopituitarism is the opposite of
hyperpituitarism.
is any disorder of pituitary function[pituitar means pituitary, and -ism means condition.
also known as a pituitary tumor, is a slow-growing, benign tumor of the pituitary gland.
Functioning pituitary tumors often produce hormones in large and unregulated amounts.
Nonfunctioning pituitary tumors do not produce significant amounts of hormones.
also known as a prolactin-producing adenoma, is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland
Diabetes Insipidus
kidneys to respond appropriately to this hormone.
When there is an insufficient quantity of ADH, too much fluid is excreted by the kidneys. This causes
axtreme polydipsia[excessive thirst] and polyuria[excessive urination]. If this problem is not controlled, it
can become a very serious condition due to dehydration.
Treatment Procedures of the Pituitary Gland
that is administered to stimulate growth when the natural supply of growth hormone is insufficient for normal
development.
The Pineal Gland
Functions of the Pineal Gland
Secretion of the Pineal Gland
period.
Pathology and Treatment of the Pineal Gland
Pinealoma
disrupting the circadian cycle.
Pinealectomy
means surgical removal].
Pinealopathy
disease].
The Thyroid Gland
Functions of the Thyroid Gland
* One of the primary functions of the thyroid gland is to regulate the body's metabolism. The term
which they are utilized.
* Thyroid secretions also influence growth and the functioning of the nervous system.
Diabetes Insipidus is caused by insufficient production of the antidiuretic hormone or by the inability of the
The human growth hormone, also known as recombinant GH, is a synthetic version of the growth hormone
The pineal gland is very small endocrine gland that is located in the central portion of the brain.
The pineal gland, also known as the pineal body, influences the sleep-wakefulness cycle.
The pineal gland secetes the hormone melatonin, which influences the sleep and wakefulness portions of
the circadian cycle. The term circadian cycle refers to the biological functions that occur within a 24-hour
is a tumor of the pineal gland that can disrupt the production of the melatonin[pineal
means pineal gland, and -oma means tumor]. This tumor can also cause insomnia by
is the surgical removal of the pineal gland[pineal means pineal gland, and -ectony
is any disorder of the pineal gland[pineal/o means pineal gland, and -pathy means
The butterfly-shaped thyroid gland lies on either side of the larynx, just below the thyroid cartilage.
metabolism describes all of the processes involved in the body's use of nutrients, including the rate at
Secretions of the Thyroid Gland
influenced by these hormones. The rate of secretion of these hormones is controlled by the thyroid-
stimulating hormone produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Pathology of the Thyroid Gland
Insufficient Thyroid Secretion
Hashimoto's thyroiditis
which the body's own antibodies attack and destroy the cells of the thyroid
gland.
Hypothyroidism
include fatigue, depression, sensitivity to cold, and a decreased metabolic rate.
Cretinism is a congenital form of hypothyroidism. If treatment is not started soon after birth,
cretinism causes arrested physical and mental development.
Myxedema
thyroid secretion. Symptoms include swelling, particularly around the eyes and cheeks,
fatigue, and a subnormal temperature.
Excessive Thyroid Secretion
Hyperthyroidism
nervousness, and weight loss.
Thyroid storm
by exaggerated hyperthyroidism. Patients experiencing a thyroid storm may complain of
fever, chest pain, palpitations, shortness of breath, tremors, increased sweating,
disorientation, and fatigue.
Graves' Disease
goiter and/or exophthalmos.
Goiter
enlargement produces a swelling in the front of the neck. A simple goiter usually occurs
when the thyroid gland is not able to produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the
body's needs.
Exophthalmos is an abnormal protrusion of the eyeball out of the orbit.
* The two primary thyroid hormones are thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The rate of metabolism is
* Calcitonin, also known as thyrocalcitonin; which is secreted by cells of the thyroid gland, works with the
parathyroid hormone to regulate the calcium levels in the blood and tissues. Calcitonin decreases blood
levels by moving calcium into storage in the bones and teeth. Compare with the function of the
parathyroid hormone.
also known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, is an autoimmune disease in
also known as an underactive thyroid, is caused by a deficiency of thyroid secretion
[hypo- means deficient, thyroid means thyroid, and -ism means condition]. Symptoms
which is also known as adult hypothyroidism, is caused by extreme deficiency of
also known as thyrotoxicosis, is an imbalance of metabolism caused by the
overproduction of thyroid hormones[hyper- means excessive, thyroid means thyroid,
and -ism means condition].Symptoms include an increased metabolic rate, sweating,
also known as thyrotoxic crisis, is a relatively rare, life-threatening condition caused
Grave's disease, which is an autoimmune disorder that is caused by hyperthyroidism, is characterized by
also known as thyromegaly, is an abnormal nonmilignant enlargement of the thyroid
gland[thyr/o means thyroid, and -megaly means abnormal enlargement]. This
Diagnostic and Treatment Procedures related to the Thyroid Gland
Thyroid-stimulating is a diagnostic test to measure the circulating blood level of thyroid-
hormone assay stimulating hormone. This test is used to detect abnormal thyroid activity
resulting from excessive pituitary stimulation.
Thyroid scan which measures thyroid function, is a form of unclear medicine.
Antithyroid drug is a medication administered to slow the ability of the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones.
Chemical thyroidectomy
radioactive iodine to destroy thyroid cells. This procedure, which disables at
least part of the thyroid gland, is used to treat chronic hyperthyroid
disorders such as Graves' disease.
Lobectomy is the surgical removal of one lobe of the thyroid gland. This term is also used to
describe the removal of a lobe of the liver, brain, or lung.
Synthetic thyroid hormoneare administered to replace most thyroid function.
The Parathyroid Glands
The four parathyroid glands, each of which is about the size of a grain of rice, are embedded in the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland.
Functions of the Parathyroid Glands
The primary function of the parathyroid glands is to regulate calcium levels throughout the body. These
calcium levels are important to the smooth functioning of the muscular and nervous systems.
Secretions of the Parathyroid Glands
in the body by mobilizing the release of calcium from storage in the bones and teeth. Compare with the
Pathology and Treatment of the Parathyroid Glands
Hyperparathyroidism which is the overproduction of the parathyroid hormone, causes the
hypercalcemia that can lead to weakened bones and the formation of
kidney stones.
such as kidney failure. Hyperparathyroidism is the opposite of
Hypoparathyroidism is caused by an insufficent or absent secretion of the parathyroid hormone
also known as radioactive iodine therapy, is the administration of
The paraythyroid hormone works with the hormone calcitonin that is secreted by the thyroid gland. Together,
they regulate the calcium levels in the blood and tissues. The parathyroid hormone increases calcium levels
function of the calcitonin.
condition known as hypercalcemia[hyper- means excessive, parathyroid
means parathyroid, and -ism means condition]. This condition causes
Primary hyperparathyroidism is due to a disorder of the parathyroid gland.
Secondary hyperparathyroidism is due to a disorder elsewhere in the body,
hypoparathyroidism.
[hypo- means deficient, parathyroid means parathyroid, and -ism means
condition]. This condition is caused by hypocalcemia, and in severe cases,
and tremors. Hypoparathyroidism is the opposite of hyperparathytroidism.
Hypercalcemia
Hypocalcemia
Osteitis fibrosa is a complication of hyperparathyroidism in which bone becomes softened and
deformed, and may develop cysts. This condition can be caused by overproduction of
parathyroid hormone or by parathyroid cancer.
Parathyroidectomwhich is the surgical removal of one or more of the the parathyroid glands, is
performed to control hyperparathyroidism.
The Thymus
[behind] the sternum and slightly superior to [above] the heart.
Functions of the Thymus
The thymus functions as part of the endocrine system by secreting a hormone that functions as part of the
immune system.
Secretions of the Thymus
Thymosi stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system. These mature cells
are important in coordinating immune defenses.
Pathology and Treatment of the Thymus
Thymitis
inflammation].
Thymoma
Thymectomy
surgical removal].
The Pancreatic Islets
Pancreas is a feather-shaped organ located posterior to the stomach that functions as part of
both the digestive and the endocrine systems.
Pancreatic islets are those parts of the pancreas that have endocrine functions
it leads to tetany. Tetany is the condition of periodic, painful muscle spasms
is characterized by abnormally highconcentrations of calcium circulating in the blood
instead of being stored in the bones[hyper- means excessive, calc means calcium,
and -emia means blood condition]. This can lead to weakened bones and the formation
of kidney stones. Hypercalemia is the opposite of hypocalcemia.
is characterized by abnormally low levels of calcium in the blood[hypo- means
deficient, calc means calcium, and -emia means blood condition].
Hypocalcemia is the opposite of hypercalcemia.
The thymus is located near the midline in the anterior portion of the thoracic cavity. It is posterior to
is an inflammation of the thymus gland[thym means thymus, and -itis means
is a usually benign tumor derived from the tissue of the thymus[thym means thymus,
and -oma means tumor].
is the surgical removal of the thymus gland[thym means thymus, and -ectomy
Functions of the Pancreatic Islets
The endocrine functions of these islets are to control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolism throughout
the body.
Glucose
Glycogenis the form in which the liver stores the excess glucose.
Secretions of the Pancreatic Islets
Glucagon
levels. Glucagon increases the glucose level by stimulating the liver to convert glycogen into
glucose for release into the bloodstream.
Insulin
levels. It functions in two ways. First, insulin allows glucose to enter tehe cells for use as energy.
glycogen for storage.
Pathology and Treatment of the Pancreas
Insulinoma is a benign tumor of the pancreas that causes hypoglycemia by secreting additional
Pancreatalgia
Pancreatitis
inflammation]. Long-term alcohol abuse is a leading cause of pancreatitis.
Pancreatectomy
pancreatic cancer, and this procedure involves the spleen, gallbladder, common bile
duct, and portions of the small instestine and stomach.
Abnormal Blood Sugar Levels
Hyperglycemia
in patients with diabetes mellitus. The symptoms include polydipsia, polyhagia, and
Polydipsia
Polyphagia
Polyuria
Hyperinsulinism
cause hypoglycemia.
Hypoglycemia
and shakiness, confusion, perspiration, or feeling anxious or weak. Hypoglycemia is
Diabetes Mellitus
also known as blood sugar, is the basic form of energy used by the body.
is the hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets in response to low blood sugar
is the hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets in response to high blood sugar
When additional glucose is not needed, insulin stimulates the liver to convert glucose into
insulin[insulin means insulin, and -oma means tumor].
is pain in the pancreas[pancreat means pancreas, and -algia means pain].
is an inflammation of the pancreas[pancreat means pancreas, and -itis means
is the surgical removal of all or part of the pancreas[pancreat means pancreas, and
-ectomy means surgical removal]. A total pancreatectomy is performed to treat
is an abnormally high concentration of glucose in the blood[hyper- means excessive,
glyc means sugar, and -emia means blood condition]. Hyperglycemia is seen primarily
polyuria. Hyperglycemia is the opposite of hypoglycemia.
is excessive thirst[poly- means many, and -dipsia means thirst].
is excessive hunger[poly- means many, and -phagia means eating].
is excessive urination[poly- means many, and -uria means urination].
is the condition of excessive secretion of insulin in the bloodstream[hyper- means
excessive, insulin means insulin, and -ism means condition]. Hyperinsulinism can
is an abnormally low concentration of glucose in the blood[hypo- means deficient,
glyc means sugar, and -emia means blood condition]. Symptoms include nervousness
the opposite of hyperglycemia.
insulin secretion, insulin action, or both.
* This condition is described as type 1 and type 2.
* Many patients present with symptoms of both types of diabetes, and their treatment must be modified
accordingly.
the condition in children is now described as being type 1 and type 2.
* The treatment goals for all types of diabetes are to most effectively control the blood sugar levels and
prevent complications.
Type 1 Diabetes
* Symptoms of type 1 diabetes include polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, weight loss, blurred vision, extreme
fatigue, and slow healing.
* Type 1 diabetes is treated with diet and exercise as well as carefully regulated insulin replacement therapy
administered by injection or pump.
Type 2 Diabetes
but the body does not use it effectively. In an attempt to compensate for this lack or response, the body
secretes more insulin.
* With the rise of childhood obesity, type 2 diabetes is increasingly common in children and young adults.
Obese adults are also at high risk for this condition.
classified as type 2 diabetes. However, this condition indicates an increased risk of developing type 2
diabetes, heart disease, and stroke.
* Type 2 diabetes can have no symptoms for years. When symptoms do occur, they include those of type 1
diabetes plus recurring infections, irritability, and a tingling sensation in the hands or feet.
* Type 2 diabetes is usually treated with diet, exercise, and oral medications.
resistance and to help insulin let blood sugar into the cells.
Gestational Diabetes
usually disappears after delivery; however, many of these women later develop type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes Mellitus Diagnostic Procedures
Fasting blood measures the glucose [blood sugar] levels after the patient has not eaten for
sugar test 8-12 hours.This test is used to screen for diabetes. This test is also used to monitor
treatment of this condition.
Oral glucose is performed to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and to aid in diagnosing
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in
* In the past, when a child developed diabetes, this condition was referred to as juvenile diabetes; however,
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune insulin deficiency disorder caused by the destruction of pancreatic islet
beta cells. Insulin deficiency means that the pancreatic beta cells do not secrete enough insulin.
Type 2 diabetes is an insulin resistance disorder. Insulin resistance means that insulin is being produced,
* Prediabetes is a condition in which the blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be
* Oral hypoglycemics lower blood sugar by causing the body to release more insulin.
* Glucophage [metformin hydrochloride] and similar medications work within the cells to combat insulin
Gestational diabetes is a form of diabetes mellitus that occurs during some pregnancies. This condition
tolerance test hypoglycemia.
Home blood measures the current blood sugar level. This test, which requires a drop of blood, is
glucose monitori performed by the patient.
Fructosamine tes measures average glucose levels over the past 3 weeks. The fructosamine test is able
to detect changes more rapidly than the HbA1c test.
Hemoglobin
A1c testing the average blood glucose level over the previous 3-4 months.
Diabetic Emergencies
Diabetic emergencies are due to either too much or too little blood sugar. Treatment depends on accurately
diagnosing the cause of the emergency.
Insulin shock
substance that can quickly be absorbed into the bloodstream, is administered orally
to rapidly raise the blood sugar level.
Diabetic coma is caused by very high blood sugar [hyperglycemia]. Also known as diabetic
Diabetic Complications
Most diabetic complications result from the damage to capillaries and other blood vessels due to long-term
exposure to excessive blood sugar.
Diabetic retinopathy occurs when diabetes damages the tiny blood vessels in the retina, causing
blood to leak into the posterior segment of the eyeball. This can cause the
loss of vision.
Heart disease occurs because excess blood sugar makes the walls of the blood vessels sticky and
rigid. This encourages hypertension and atherosclerosis.
Kidney disease can lead to renal failure because damage to the blood vessels reduces blood flow
through the kidneys.
Neuropathy is damage to the nerves.
Peripheral neuropathy is damage to the nerves affecting the hands and feet. Causes pain,
tingling, or numbness.
The Adrenal Glands
Functions of the Adrenal Glands
One of the primary functions of the adrenal glands is to control electrolyte levels within the body.
* Other important functions of the adrenal glands include helping to regulate metabolism and interacting
with the sympathetic nervous system in response to stress.
also known as HbA1c and pronounced as "H-B A-one-C", is a blood test that measures
is caused by very low blood sugar [hypoglycemia]. Oral glucose, which is a sugary
ketoacidosis, this condition is treated by the prompt administration of insulin.
The adrenal glands are also known as the suprarenals because they are located with one on top of each
kidney. Each of these glands consists of an outer portion, known as the adrenal cortex, and the middle
portion, which is the adrenal medulla. Each of these parts has a specialized role, and the entire gland is
surrounded by an adrenal capsule.
* Electrolytes are mineral substances, such as sodium and potassium, that are normally found in the blood.
Secretions of the Adrenal Cortex
The same term describes synthetically produced equivalents that are adminstered as medications.
Aldosterone regulates the salt and water levels in the body by increasing sodium reabsorption and
[mineralocorticoids]
bloodstream.
Androgens are hormones that influence sex-related characteristics. Normally, in adults the
[gonadocorticoids] production of androgens in the adrenal cortex is minimal; instead, these hormones
are produced in the male and female gonads.
Cortisol
[glucocorticoids] metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the body.
Secretions of the Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine
stress or other stimuli. It makes the heart beat faster and can raise blood pressure. It
also helps the liver release glucose [sugar] and limits the release of insulin.
Norepinephrine is both a hormone and a neurohormone. It is released as a neurohormone by the
sympathetic nervous system and as a hormone by the adrenal medulla. It plays an
important role in the "fight-or-flight response" by raising blood pressure, strengthening
the heartbeat, and stimulating muscle contractions.
Pathology of the Adrenal Glands
Addison's diseaseoccurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormones cortisol or
aldosterone. This condition is characterized by chronic, worsening fatigue and muscle
weakness, loss of appetite, and weight loss.
Adrenalitis
inflammation].
Aldosteronism is an abnormality of electrolyte balance caused by the excessive secretion of
aldosterone.
Conn's syndrome
excessive production of aldosterone.
from a disorder, such as nephrotic syndrome, that occurs elsewhere in the body.
Pheochromocyto is a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla that causes the gland to produce excess
means tumor].
Cushing's Syndrome
cortisol. The Symptoms include a rounded or "moon face".
This condition can be caused by overproduction of cortisol by the body or by taking glucocorticoid hormone
Corticosteroids are the steroid hormones preoduced by the adrenal cortex and to their synthetic equivalents.
These are described in three groups: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and gonadocorticoids.
potassium excretion by the kidneys. Reabsorption means returning a substance to the
also known as hydrocortisone, has an anti-inflammatory action, and it regulates the
also known as adrenaline, stimulates the sympathetic nervous system in response to
is inflammation of the adrenal glands[adrenal means adrenal glands, and -itis means
also known as primary aldosteronism, is a disorder of the adrenal glands due to
* Secondary aldosteronism is is not caused by a disorder of the adrenal gland. It results
epinephrine[phe/o means dusky, chrom/o means color, cyt means cell, and -oma
Cushing's syndrome, also known hypercortisolism, is caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of
medications to treat inflammatory diseases such as asthma and rheumatoid arthritis.
Treatment Procedures of the Adrenal Glands
Laparoscopic adrenalecto is a minimally invasive procedure to surgically remove one or both adrenal
Cortisone
by the body. Cortisone is administered to suppress inflammation and as an
immunosuppressant.
Epinephrine is a synthetic hormone used as a vasoconstrictor to treat conditions such as heart
contract.
The Gonads
Gamete is a reproductive cell. These are sperm in the male and ova[eggs] in the female.
Gonadotropin
[gonad/o means gonad, and -tropin means to stimulate].
Functions of the Gonads
The gonads secrete the hormones that are responsible for the development and maintenance of the
secondary sex characteristics that develop during puberty.
Puberty is the condition of first being capable of reproducing sexually. It is marked by maturing of the
genital organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, and by the first occurrence of
menstruation in the female. The average age at which puberty occurs is 12 years in females and
14 in males.
Precocious puber is the early onset of the changes of puberty. This is before age 9 years in females and
before 10 in males.
Secretions of the Testicles
Testosterone which is secreted by the testicles, stimulates the development of male secondary
sex characteristics.
Virile means having the nature, properties, or qualities of an adult male.
Secretions of the Ovaries
Estrogen is important in the development and maintenance of the female secondary sex
characteristics and in regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone is the hormone released during the second half of the menstrual cycle by the corpus
luteum in the ovary. Its function is to complete the preparations for pregnancy.
* If pregnancy occurs, the placenta takes over the production of progesterone.
* If pregnancy does not occur, secretion of the hormone stops and is followed by the menstrual period.
The Placenta
glands[adrenal means adrenal gland, and -ectomy means surgical removal].
also known as hydrocortisone, is the synthetic equivalent of corticosteroids produced
dysrhythmias and asthma attacks. A vasoconstrictor causes the blood vessels to
The gonads, which are the ovaries in females and testicles in males, are gamete-producing glands.
also known as gonadotropic hormone, is any hormone that stimulates the gonads
corpus luteum to continue producing the hormones required to maintain the pregnancy. It also stimulates
the hormones required to stimulate lactation after childbirth.
Pathology and Treatment of the Gonads
Hypergonadism
Hypogonadism
Gynecomastia
Abbreviations
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone
ALD aldosterone
ADH antidiuretic hormone
CAL calcitonin
CS Cushing's syndrome
DI diabetes insipidus
DM diabetes mellitus
DR, DRP diabetic retinopathy
Epi, EPI epinephrine
FBS fasting blood sugar
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone
FA fructosamine test
GDM gestational diabetes mellitus
GCG glucagon
GD Graves' disease
GH growth hormone
HG hypoglycemia
HT Hashimoto's thyroiditis
HBGM home blood glucose monitoring
HCG human chorionic gonadotropin
HP hyperparathyroidism
ICSH interstitial cell-stimulating hormone
LEP, LPT leptin
LH luteinizing hormone
LTH lactogenic hormone
MSH melanocyte-stimulating hormone
OGTT oral glucose tolerance test
OXT oxytocin
During pregnancy, the placenta secretes the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin to stimulate the
is the condition of excessive secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hyper- means
excessive, gonad means sex gland, and -ism means condition].
is the condition of deficient secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hypo- means
deficient, gonad means sex gland, and -ism means condition].
is the condition of excessive mammary development in the male[gynec/o means
female, mast means breast, and ia means abnormal condition].
PC, PCC, pheochromocytoma
Pheo
PTH parathyroid hormone
TSH thyroid-stimulating hormone
triiodothyonine
thyroxine
T3
T4
Regulate electrolyte levels, influence metabolism,
Regulate development and maintenance of secondary
Control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolsim.
Secretes hormones that control the activity of the
Stimulates metabolism, growth, and the activity of
The primary function of the endocrine system is to produce hormones that work together to maintain
* Because the hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream, they are able to reach cells and organs
are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine glands and have specialized functions
Stimulates the growth and secretions of the adrenal cortex.
Helps control blood pressure by reducing the amount of water
Works with the parathyroid hormone to regulate calcium levels
Regulates the metabolism of carbohydreates, fats, and proteins,
Develops and maintains the female secondary sex characteristics
growth of ova[eggs]. In the male, stimulates the production
Regulates the growth of bone, muscle, and other body tissues.
Stimulates the secretion of the hormones required to maintain
Regulates the transport of glucose to the body cells and stimulates
Stimulates ovulation in the female. Stimulates the secretion of
Increases the production of melanin in melanocytes of the skin.
Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. It also causes
Works with calcitonin to regulate calcium levels in the blood
Stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics.
* Steroid hormones help control metabolism, inflammation, immune functions, salt and water balance,
* The term steroid describes both hormones produced by the body and artificially produced medications that
are chemically related to the male sex hormone testosterone. These have been used
illegally by athletes to increase strength and muscle mass. Serious side effects of
anabolic steroid use include liver damage, altered body chemistry, testicular shrinkage,
and breast development in males, plus unpredictable mood swings and violence.
* Steroid use by teenagers also stops long bone development, resulting in shortened
* The use of steroids usually can be detected through the testing of either blood or
Fat is not commonly thought of as an endocrine gland; however, research has revealed that fat cells do
secrete at least one, and possibly more, hormones that play an important role in the balance and health of
* Leptin leaves the fat cells and travels in the bloodstream to brain centers. Here, it acts to control the
* Leptin also affects female reproduction, immune function, and the function of many other hormones,
cells of the brain. Although produced in the brain, they are able to affect cells throughout distant parts of
is any one of a large number of hormone-like substances secreted by endocrine glands or artificially
are secreted by specialized
is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and malfunctions of
is a condition due to excessive secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland
is a condition caused by deficient secretion of any gland, especially an endocrine gland
* Nuclear medicine and imaging techniques are used to diagnose and treat disorders affecting the endocrine
The primary function of the pituitary gland is to secrete hormones that control the activity of other endocrine
glands. The pituitary acts in response to stimuli from the hypothalamus. This creates a system of checks and
stimulates the secretion of estrogen and the growth of ova[eggs]
-ologist means specialist].
means within,
, which is composed of anterior and posterior lobes, hangs from the
is a stalk-like structure.
, which is part of the brain, secretes neurohormones that enable it to communicate with
is unlike a hormone secreted by the endocrine glands because
, regulates the growth of bone, muscle,
stimulates ovulation in the female. In the male, it stimulates the secretion
stimulates ovulation in the female and production of the female sex hormone
progesterone. In the male, LH stimulates the secretion of testosterone.
increases the production of melanin in melanocytes, thereby causing
maintains the water balance within the body by promoting the reabsoption
of water through the kidneys. When more antidiuretic hormone is secreted,
labor]. After childbirth, oxytocin stimulates the flow of milk from the mammary glands.
is pathology resulting in the excessive secretion by the anterior lobe of the pituitary
is a condition of reduced secretion due to the partial, or complete, loss of the function
The two types of these tumors are functioning and nonfunctioning pituitary tumors.
that causes it to produce too much prolactin. In females, this overproduction causes
-tropic means having an
, stimulates and maintains the secretion of breast
means swift, and -tocin means
is a synthetic form of oxytocin that is adminstered to induce or speed up labor.
means extremities, and
, is abnormal overgrowth of the entire body that is caused by
puberty. Contrast with acromegaly.
means condition].
pituitar means
-ism means condition.
, is a slow-growing, benign tumor of the pituitary gland.
often produce hormones in large and unregulated amounts.
do not produce significant amounts of hormones.
, is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland
When there is an insufficient quantity of ADH, too much fluid is excreted by the kidneys. This causes
axtreme polydipsia[excessive thirst] and polyuria[excessive urination]. If this problem is not controlled, it
that is administered to stimulate growth when the natural supply of growth hormone is insufficient for normal
is caused by insufficient production of the antidiuretic hormone or by the inability of the
s a synthetic version of the growth hormone
, which influences the sleep and wakefulness portions of
refers to the biological functions that occur within a 24-hour
is a tumor of the pineal gland that can disrupt the production of the melatonin[pineal
means tumor]. This tumor can also cause insomnia by
means pineal gland, and -ectony
means pineal gland, and -pathy means
lies on either side of the larynx, just below the thyroid cartilage.
describes all of the processes involved in the body's use of nutrients, including the rate at
influenced by these hormones. The rate of secretion of these hormones is controlled by the thyroid-
which the body's own antibodies attack and destroy the cells of the thyroid
include fatigue, depression, sensitivity to cold, and a decreased metabolic rate.
is a congenital form of hypothyroidism. If treatment is not started soon after birth,
thyroid secretion. Symptoms include swelling, particularly around the eyes and cheeks,
by exaggerated hyperthyroidism. Patients experiencing a thyroid storm may complain of
fever, chest pain, palpitations, shortness of breath, tremors, increased sweating,
enlargement produces a swelling in the front of the neck. A simple goiter usually occurs
when the thyroid gland is not able to produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the
. The rate of metabolism is
; which is secreted by cells of the thyroid gland, works with the
parathyroid hormone to regulate the calcium levels in the blood and tissues. Calcitonin decreases blood
, is an autoimmune disease in
, is caused by a deficiency of thyroid secretion
means condition]. Symptoms
, is caused by extreme deficiency of
thyroid means thyroid,
means condition].Symptoms include an increased metabolic rate, sweating,
, is a relatively rare, life-threatening condition caused
, which is an autoimmune disorder that is caused by hyperthyroidism, is characterized by
, is an abnormal nonmilignant enlargement of the thyroid
means abnormal enlargement]. This
stimulating hormone. This test is used to detect abnormal thyroid activity
is a medication administered to slow the ability of the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
radioactive iodine to destroy thyroid cells. This procedure, which disables at
is the surgical removal of one lobe of the thyroid gland. This term is also used to
The four parathyroid glands, each of which is about the size of a grain of rice, are embedded in the posterior
The primary function of the parathyroid glands is to regulate calcium levels throughout the body. These
in the body by mobilizing the release of calcium from storage in the bones and teeth. Compare with the
hypercalcemia that can lead to weakened bones and the formation of
is caused by an insufficent or absent secretion of the parathyroid hormone
works with the hormone calcitonin that is secreted by the thyroid gland. Together,
increases calcium levels
means excessive, parathyroid
means condition]. This condition causes
is due to a disorder of the parathyroid gland.
is due to a disorder elsewhere in the body,
means parathyroid, and -ism means
condition]. This condition is caused by hypocalcemia, and in severe cases,
and tremors. Hypoparathyroidism is the opposite of hyperparathytroidism.
is a complication of hyperparathyroidism in which bone becomes softened and
deformed, and may develop cysts. This condition can be caused by overproduction of
The thymus functions as part of the endocrine system by secreting a hormone that functions as part of the
stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system. These mature cells
is a feather-shaped organ located posterior to the stomach that functions as part of
is the condition of periodic, painful muscle spasms
concentrations of calcium circulating in the blood
means calcium,
means blood condition]. This can lead to weakened bones and the formation
hypo- means
is located near the midline in the anterior portion of the thoracic cavity. It is posterior to
thym means thymus,
means thymus, and -ectomy means
The endocrine functions of these islets are to control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolism throughout
levels. Glucagon increases the glucose level by stimulating the liver to convert glycogen into
levels. It functions in two ways. First, insulin allows glucose to enter tehe cells for use as energy.
is a benign tumor of the pancreas that causes hypoglycemia by secreting additional
pancreatic cancer, and this procedure involves the spleen, gallbladder, common bile
in patients with diabetes mellitus. The symptoms include polydipsia, polyhagia, and
and shakiness, confusion, perspiration, or feeling anxious or weak. Hypoglycemia is
of the pancreatic islets in response to low blood sugar
of the pancreatic islets in response to high blood sugar
needed, insulin stimulates the liver to convert glucose into
means pancreas, and -itis means
means pancreas, and
is performed to treat
means excessive,
means blood condition]. Hyperglycemia is seen primarily
hyper- means
means condition]. Hyperinsulinism can
means deficient,
means blood condition]. Symptoms include nervousness
* Many patients present with symptoms of both types of diabetes, and their treatment must be modified
* The treatment goals for all types of diabetes are to most effectively control the blood sugar levels and
* Symptoms of type 1 diabetes include polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, weight loss, blurred vision, extreme
* Type 1 diabetes is treated with diet and exercise as well as carefully regulated insulin replacement therapy
but the body does not use it effectively. In an attempt to compensate for this lack or response, the body
* With the rise of childhood obesity, type 2 diabetes is increasingly common in children and young adults.
classified as type 2 diabetes. However, this condition indicates an increased risk of developing type 2
* Type 2 diabetes can have no symptoms for years. When symptoms do occur, they include those of type 1
8-12 hours.This test is used to screen for diabetes. This test is also used to monitor
is performed to confirm a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and to aid in diagnosing
is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in
juvenile diabetes; however,
is an autoimmune insulin deficiency disorder caused by the destruction of pancreatic islet
means that insulin is being produced,
is a condition in which the blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be
[metformin hydrochloride] and similar medications work within the cells to combat insulin
is a form of diabetes mellitus that occurs during some pregnancies. This condition
measures the current blood sugar level. This test, which requires a drop of blood, is
measures average glucose levels over the past 3 weeks. The fructosamine test is able
Diabetic emergencies are due to either too much or too little blood sugar. Treatment depends on accurately
substance that can quickly be absorbed into the bloodstream, is administered orally
Most diabetic complications result from the damage to capillaries and other blood vessels due to long-term
occurs when diabetes damages the tiny blood vessels in the retina, causing
blood to leak into the posterior segment of the eyeball. This can cause the
occurs because excess blood sugar makes the walls of the blood vessels sticky and
can lead to renal failure because damage to the blood vessels reduces blood flow
* Other important functions of the adrenal glands include helping to regulate metabolism and interacting
", is a blood test that measures
, which is a sugary
because they are located with one on top of each
, and the middle
. Each of these parts has a specialized role, and the entire gland is
are mineral substances, such as sodium and potassium, that are normally found in the blood.
The same term describes synthetically produced equivalents that are adminstered as medications.
regulates the salt and water levels in the body by increasing sodium reabsorption and
production of androgens in the adrenal cortex is minimal; instead, these hormones
stress or other stimuli. It makes the heart beat faster and can raise blood pressure. It
is both a hormone and a neurohormone. It is released as a neurohormone by the
sympathetic nervous system and as a hormone by the adrenal medulla. It plays an
important role in the "fight-or-flight response" by raising blood pressure, strengthening
occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormones cortisol or
aldosterone. This condition is characterized by chronic, worsening fatigue and muscle
from a disorder, such as nephrotic syndrome, that occurs elsewhere in the body.
is a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla that causes the gland to produce excess
This condition can be caused by overproduction of cortisol by the body or by taking glucocorticoid hormone
are the steroid hormones preoduced by the adrenal cortex and to their synthetic equivalents.
means returning a substance to the
, has an anti-inflammatory action, and it regulates the
, stimulates the sympathetic nervous system in response to
means adrenal glands, and -itis means
, is a disorder of the adrenal glands due to
caused by a disorder of the adrenal gland. It results
means cell, and -oma
, is caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of
is a minimally invasive procedure to surgically remove one or both adrenal
is a synthetic hormone used as a vasoconstrictor to treat conditions such as heart
is a reproductive cell. These are sperm in the male and ova[eggs] in the female.
The gonads secrete the hormones that are responsible for the development and maintenance of the
is the condition of first being capable of reproducing sexually. It is marked by maturing of the
genital organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, and by the first occurrence of
menstruation in the female. The average age at which puberty occurs is 12 years in females and
is the early onset of the changes of puberty. This is before age 9 years in females and
which is secreted by the testicles, stimulates the development of male secondary
is important in the development and maintenance of the female secondary sex
is the hormone released during the second half of the menstrual cycle by the corpus
* If pregnancy does not occur, secretion of the hormone stops and is followed by the menstrual period.
means surgical removal].
, is the synthetic equivalent of corticosteroids produced
causes the blood vessels to
, which are the ovaries in females and testicles in males, are gamete-producing glands.
, is any hormone that stimulates the gonads
corpus luteum to continue producing the hormones required to maintain the pregnancy. It also stimulates
human chorionic gonadotropin to stimulate the
is the condition of excessive secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hyper- means
is the condition of deficient secretion of hormones by the sex glands[hypo- means
gynec/o means