Download - Local Government Failure
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
1/46
Cotgrhturg Pgvogw
wotl
Gkmkatgs & Pgjgrgkbgs
CabhcIavgrkfg
kt Jhocurg
@rohk Maccgry & DagYhccos
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
2/46
H@RPH!
H su`sthktohc pu`cob blaobg cotgrhturg gxosts ak tlg igkgrob
plgkafgkak aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg ok hmvhkbgm wgstgrk
rgprgsgkthtovg mgfabrhbogs. Lawgvgr, fubl cgss httgktoak
lhs `ggk jabussgm ak tlos qugstoak ok tlg spgbojob baktgxt aj
cabhc iavgrkhkbg, wotl tlg ofparthkt gxbgptoaks aj @hocgy
(8! hkm @aykg (8"!. #k tlos phpgr wg hmvhkbg tlg
hriufgkt tlht kat akcy os iavgrkfgkt jhocurg hk gssgktohc
mofgksoak aj pacoby fh$oki ht hcc cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt, `ut
tlht baigkt rghsaks gxost jar `gcogvoki tlht tlg pra`cgf aj
iavgrkfgkt jhocurg fhy `g fubl farg hbutg ok cabhc
iavgrkfgkt tlhk ht loilgr togrs aj iavgrkhkbg. %los
hriufgkt ruks bauktgr ta bakvgktoakhc wosmaf hfakist
baffgkthtars, okbcumoki @hocgy (8! hkm @aykg (8"!.
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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CABHC IAZGPKFGK] JHOCWPG
%lg plgkafgkak aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg, mgjokgm lgrg hs tlg
okh`ocoty aj h iavgrkfgkt higkby ar higkbogs ok h iovgk togr
aj iavgrkfgkt ar ok h jgmgrhc systgf aj fucto&togrgm
iavgrkfgkts ta oktgrvgkg aptofhccy ok h fhr$gt gbakafy, os
kaw h jhfocohr hrgh ok pacoby hkhcysos. #k tlos hrtobcg wg
hmvhkbg tlg hriufgkt tlht kat akcy os iavgrkfgkt jhocurg hk
gssgktohc mofgksoak aj pacoby fh$oki ht hcc cgvgcs aj
iavgrkfgkt, `ut tlht baigkt rghsaks gxost jar `gcogvoki tlht
tlg pra`cgf aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg fhy `g fubl farg hbutg
ok cabhc iavgrkfgkt tlhk ht loilgr togrs aj iavgrkhkbg. %los
hriufgkt ruks bauktgr ta bakvgktoakhc wosmaf hfakist
baffgkthtars ak fukobophc pacobyfh$oki, fast kath`cy tlg
vogws aj hutlarothtovg @rotosl sblachrs @hocgy (8! hkm
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
4/46
@aykg (8"!. 'argavgr, wg mgvgcap h kgw thxakafy aj
iavgrkfgkt jhocurg ok suppart aj aur tlgsos.
%lg hppcobhtoak aj tlg pu`cob blaobg hpprahbl ta tlg pu`cob
sgbtar lhs igkgrhtgm vhroaus thxakafob systgfs aj
iavgrkfgkt jhocurg. ar gxhfpcg, pgrlhps tlg ghrcogst
typacaiy aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg whs mgvgcapgm `y )*+awm
(8", p.-/! wla hriugm tlht hcc jarfs aj iavgrkfgkt
jhocurg jgcc okta h igkgrob trophrtotg bchssojobhtoak bakthokoki
>oklgrgkt ofpasso`ocotogs*, >pacotobhc jhocurgs* hkm >`urghubrhtob
jhocurgs*. H safgwlht farg rgbgkt hkm bcasgcy rgchtgm
thxakafy aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg lhs `ggk hmvhkbgm `y
+accgry hkm hccos (8! wla hriug tlht ot os passo`cg ta
omgktojy tlrgg fhok jarfs aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg0 cgioschtovg
jhocurg, `urghubrhtob jhocurg, hkm rgkt&sgg$oki. @ut passo`cy
tlg fast bafprglgksovg typacaiy aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg lhs
`ggk mgvgcapgm `y gos`ram (8"!, wla lhs hmvhkbgm h
jaurjacm bchssojobhtoak wlobl bafprosgs cgioschtovg jhocurg,
hmfokostrhtovg jhocurg, 2umobohc jhocurg hkm gkjarbgfgkt
jhocurg.
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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%lg phpgr otsgcj os movomgm okta tlrgg fhok phrts. =gbtoak
akg jabusgs ak tlg typacaiogs aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg, wlobl
lhvg `ggk gspgbohccy bakstrubtgm jar cabhc iavgrkfgkt `y
@aykg (8"! hkm @hocgy (8!. H kgw jaurjacm thxakafy aj
cabhc iavgrkfgkt jhocurg os mgvgcapgm ok phrt twa, wlobl
httgfpts ta loilcoilt tlg pgbucohr susbgpto ocoty aj tlos togr aj
iavgrkhkbg ta iavgrkfgkt jhocurg. %lg phpgr gkms wotl
safg `rogj bakbcumoki rgfhr$s ok sgbtoak tlrgg.
H"#$#%GR #J C#!HC I#'GP$%G$
JHC(PG
%lg cotgrhturg bakthoks bafphrhtovgcy jgw oksthkbgs aj tlg
hppcobhtoak aj pu`cob blaobg tlgary ta h spgbojobhccy cabhc
iavgrkfgkt baktgxt ok tlg sgksg aj mgvgcapoki h thxakafob
tlgargtobhc systgf aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg, wotl safg
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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gxbgptoaks, fast kath`cy @aykg (8"! hkm @hocgy (8!. #k
los 7u`cob :laobg %lgary hkm 9abhc bafpgtotoak `gtwggk iavgrkfgkthc
hkm provhtg arihkoshtoaks jar baktrac avgr tlg pramubtoak aj
pu`cob sgrvobgs*. @aykg hriugs tlht jar gjjgbtovg %og`aut&stycg
bafpgtotoak ta abbur ok tlg cabhc iavgrkfgkt vhroaus
bakmotoaks fust `g fgt ta gksurg tlht khturg aj tlos
bafpgtotoak rgsucts ok gjjobogkt autbafgs, wlobl hrg ajtgk
oikargm `y pu`cob blaobg tlgarosts. %lgsg bakmotoaks okbcumg
>laro?akthc jrhifgkthtoak* ar h chrig kuf`gr aj cabhc
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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Hs fgtlams `y wlobl boto?gks bhk okjcugkbg tlg gxtgkt aj
iavgrkfgkt jhocurg ht tlg cabhc iavgrkfgkt cgvgc, `atl gxot
hkm vaobg lhvg vhroaus cofothtoaks. @hocgy (8, pp.535"!
omgktojogs
jovg fhok blhrhbtgrostobs aj cabhc pu`cob sgrvobgs wlobl bhk
oklo`ot tlg gjjgbtovgkgss aj vaobg ok fukobophc hjjhors. >9gihc
hkm okstotutoakhc `hrrogrs* ok tlg jarf aj mocutgm pacotobhc
rgprgsgkthtoak, gcgbtarhc hkm prabgmurhc orrgiuchrotogs,
okhmgquhtg pu`cob lghrokis, hkm sa jartl, bhk hcc sgrvg ta
ofpgmg pacotobhc httgfpts hofgm ht ofpravoki pu`cob
sgrvobgs. >#kjarfhtoak hsyffgtrogs* `gtwggk pu cob
`urghubrhts hkm boto?gks bakbgrkoki tlg khturg hkm basts aj
pu`cob sgrvobg mgcovgry bhk hcsa bakstrhok tlg gjjobhby aj
vaobg. lgrg sgrvobgs hrg loilcy mojjgrgktohtgm hs, shy, ok tlg
bhsg aj tlg quhcoty aj gmubhtoak pravomgm `y mojjgrgkt
sblaacs, vaobg `y safg boto?gks fhy akcy okjcugkbg tlg
`glhvoaur aj h phrtobuchr sblaac rhtlgr tlhk tlg wlacg sblaac
systgf, ok baktrhst ta ukmojjgrgktohtgm sgrvobgs wlgrg vaobg
wocc lhvg farg igkgrhc gjjgbts. %lg saboagbakafob
blhrhbtgrostobs aj tlg papuchtoak ok h phrtobuchr 2urosmobtoak
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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fhy `g h mgbosovg jhbtar, wotl `gttgr&gmubhtgm, hjjcugkt
iraups farg co$gcy ta gxprgss vaobg tlhk tlgor paargr, cgss
gmubhtgm bauktgrphrts. okhccy, tlg irghtgr tlg rgchtovg
ofparthkbg aj safg pu`cob sgrvobg ta tlg pgrbgovgm wgcjhrg
aj h papuchtoak, tlg farg ofparthkt vaobg wocc `g hs h fghks
aj hmmrgssoki iavgrkfgkt jhocurg.
6xot os hcsa su`2gbt ta h kuf`gr aj bakstrhokts wlobl hrg
spgct aut `y @hocgy (8, p.5"!. %lg kak&gxbcumh`ocoty
blhrhbtgrostob aj pu`cob iaams fhy prgbcumg gxot hctaigtlgr
wlgk tlgsg hrg khtoakhc pu`cob iaams, hkm gvgk jar safg
cabhc pu cob iaams co$g paar gkvorakfgkthc pratgbtoak
cgioschtoak fhy okvacvg gxpgksovg rgcabhtoak. ;hturhc
fakapacogs sofochrcy prgbcumg gxot wlgrg tlgy bavgr chrig
igairhplobhc hrghs. 9gioschtovg ofpgmofgkts ta gktry `y
hctgrkhtovg suppcogrs aj h sgrvobg fhy kgihtg gxot
passo`ocotogs, hs ok tlg bhsg aj khtoakhc tgcgbaffukobhtoak
pravomgrs. #k chrig bauktrogs wotl ukgvgk bakbgktrhtoaks aj
papuchtoak, subl hs Hustrhcoh, :hkhmh hkm tlg 1kotgm =thtgs,
chrig cabhc iavgrkfgkt 2urosmobtoaks wotl sfhcc kuf`grs aj
pgapcg fhy igkgrhtg sphtohc `hrrogrs ta gxot. Hkm chstcy,
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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ofpgrjgbt okjarfhtoak hvhoch`cg ta baksufgrs fhy fghk
tlgy hrg ukhwhrg aj rgchtovgcy ukhttrhbtovg sgrvobg pravosoak
tlgy hrg burrgktcy rgbgovoki, hkm tlus okmubg tlgf ta
ukmgrgstofhtg tlg `gkgjots aj gxot.
H $GY H"#$#%) #J C#!HC
I#'GP$%G$ JHC(PG
%lg vhroaus thxakafob systgfs aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg wlobl
wg lhvg loilcoiltgm slgm baksomgrh`cg coilt ak tlg kufgraus
whys ok wlobl tlos plgkafgkak bhk fhkojgst otsgcj ok fhr$gt
gbakafogs blhrhbtgrosgm `y rgprgsgkthtovg mgfabrhby.
'argavgr, ot waucm hppghr tlht kat akcy hrg tlg igkgrob
jarfs aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg u`oquotaus ok tlg sgksg tlht tlgy
hppcy ta iavgrkhkbg systgfs ok hcc hmvhkbgm bauktrogs, `ut
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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tlht tlgy hcsa abbur ht hcc cgvgcs aj iavgrkhkbg ok tlgsg
bauktrogs. ;ggmcgss ta hmm, tlg wgoilt aj gvomgkbg suiigsts
tlht iavgrkfgkt jhocurg os fubl farg sgvgrg ok mgvgcapoki
sabogtogs tlhk ok tlgor mgvgcapgm bauktgrphrts (
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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tlok$ tlg rgchtovg ghsg aj gxot jraf cabhc iavgrkfgkt
2urosmobtoaks slaucm fh$g fukobophcotogs rhtlgr cgss prakg ta
iavgrkfgkt jhocurg tlhk tlgor farg huiust bauktgrphrts.
#k baktrhst ta tlos cotgrhturg, wg baktgkm tlht baigkt
rghsaks gxost wlobl suiigst tlht cabhc iavgrkfgkts hrg
fubl farg susbgpto`cg ta iavgrkfgkt jhocurg tlhk loilgr
cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt. urtlgrfarg, mrhwoki ak tlg gxostoki
thxakafob cotgrhturg baktro`utgm `y pu`cob blaobg tlgarosts,
wg mgvgcap h kgw jaurjacm typacaiy aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg ok
armgr ta susthok tlos bchof. #k gssgkbg, wg hriug tlht ht tlg
cgvgc aj fukobophc iavgrkhkbg, ot os passo`cg ta omgktojy jaur
fhok jarfs aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg wlobl, hctlauil tlgy foilt
hcsa hjjcobt jgmgrhc hkm sthtg iavgrkfgkts, hrg kakgtlgcgss
gspgbohccy gvomgkt ok tlg apgrhtoaks aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt.
%lgsg $okms aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg bhk `g tgrfgm >vatgr
hphtly*, >hsyffgtrob okjarfhtoak hkm baukboccar bhpturg*,
>orak trohkicgs*, hkm >josbhc occusoak*. g slhcc gxhfokg ghbl aj
tlgsg prapasgm thxakafob bhtgiarogs ok turk.
Natgr Hphtly
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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H jukmhfgkthc prapasotoak aj pu`cob blaobg tlgary lacms tlht,
ok igkgrhc, vatoki `y boto?gks ok pacotobhc gcgbtoaks os hk
orrhtoakhc hbtovoty sokbg tlg prabgss aj vatoki os bastcy
wlgrghs tlg `gkgjots hssabohtgm wotl vatoki hrg kgicoio`cg
(Hcmrobl, 8!. gt a`voauscy ok tlg rghc&warcm pgapcg ma
vatg, hctlauil ok fhky oksthkbgs phrtobophtoak rhtgs hrg caw.
%los sa&bhccgm >phrhmax aj vatoki* bhk `g rgsacvgm oj vatoki os
vogwgm hs h baksufptoak hbtovoty. 'argavgr, ok wgstgrk
sabogtogs tlg sabohcoshtoak prabgss strakicy gfplhsosgs tlg
bovob vortugs hssabohtgm wotl pacotobhc phrtobophtoak.
Hctlauil tlg bakbgptoak aj vatoki hs h baksufptoak
hbtovoty fhy tlus gxpchok wly pgapcg vatg ok gcgbtoaks, ot
bhkkat prgmobt law vatgrs wocc blaasg `gtwggk hctgrkhtovg
aptoaks akbg tlgy hrg oksomg tlg paccoki `aatl. %lg
bakvgktoakhc hkhcysos aj tlos qugstoak jabusgs ak tlg
gbakafob mofgksoaks aj tlg blaobg0 vatgrs wgoil up tlg
basts hkm `gkgjots aj bafpgtoki pacoby aptoaks hkm sgcgbt tlg
pacoby wlobl fhxofosgs tlgor kgt `gkgjot ok tgrfs aj
autbafgs ('ugccgr, 8"!. Lawgvgr, farg rgbgkt cotgrhturg
ak >gxprgssovg vatoki* sggfs ta okmobhtg tlht tlg hbtuhc
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blaobg aj gcgbtars mgpgkms farg ak prgjgrgkbgs jar aptoaks
rhtlgr tlhk autbafgs, wlgrg aptoaks ma kat baksomgr tlg
basts okvacvgm ok autbafgs (@rgkkhk hkm @ublhkhk, 8"50
hotl hkm %accosak, 8-!.
+gspotg tlg ukmgkoh`cg jhbt tlht tlg roilt ta vatg pchys h
mgbosovg racg ok mgfabrhby, taigtlgr wotl rgchtgm
bakstotutoakhc roilts, okbcumoki jrgg spggbl hkm jrggmaf aj
hssabohtoak, tlg hbt aj vatoki ok mgfabrhtob gcgbtoaks os
jrhuilt wotl hf`oiuotogs. ar oksthkbg, tlg su`sthktohc basts
aj ihtlgroki hkm moigstoki okjarfhtoak ak bafpgtoki
bhkmomhtgs, hctgrkhtovg pacobogs, tlg basts hkm `gkgjots aj
pacoby pchtjarfs, hkm tlg co$g, taigtlgr wotl tlg jhbt tlg vatg
aj hk okmovomuhc gcgbtar bhkkat rghcostobhccy okjcugkbg gcgbtarhc
autbafgs, fghks tlht fast vatgrs blaasg ta rgfhok
>rhtoakhccy oikarhkt* ak fhky aj tlg ossugs okvacvgm.
=ofochrcy, vatgrs typobhccy pchy muhc racgs ok tlg pacotobhc
prabgss, hbtoki `atl hs patgktohc `gkgjobohrogs aj pu`cob
pacobogs hkm hs praspgbtovg jokhkbogrs aj tlgsg pacobogs ok
tlgor bhphbotogs hs thxphygrs.
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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+gspotg tlg bgktrhcoty aj vatoki ok tlg mgfabrhtob prabgss,
ot os `y ka fghks tlg akcy gcgfgkt ok baccgbtovg mgbosoak
fh$oki. ;ufgraus atlgr fgblhkosfs gxost, safg aj wlobl
wg katgm ghrcogr ok aur mosbussoak ak Lorsblfhk*s (8/!
>vaobg* bakbgpt, wlobl rhkig jraf jarfhc vatoki prabgmurgs
ta apokoak paccs, pratgst fggtokis, pgtotoaks, >thc$`hb$* rhmoa
slaws hkm tlg co$g. %lgsg hctgrkhtovgs ta vatoki sgrvg ta
mofokosl ots soikojobhkbg ok gcgbtars* gygs hkm baktro`utg
tawhrms caw pacotobhc phrtobophtoak rhtgs, occ&okjarfgm vatgrs,
hkm tlg vhroaus atlgr pra`cgfs hssabohtgm wotl gcgbtoaks
ukmgr rgprgsgkthtovg mgfabrhby.
Hctlauil tlg mojjobuctogs hrosoki jraf vatgr hphtly
ukmau`tgmcy hjjcobt `atl tlg gcgbtarhc prabgss hkm ots
su`sgqugkt >rgspaksovgkgss* ta tlg prgjgrgkbgs aj boto?gks ht
hcc cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt, tlg pra`cgf sggfs ta `g fast
hbutg cabhc iavgrkfgkt. #t os passo`cg ta omgktojy sgvgrhc
jhbtars tlht fhy hbbaukt jar tlos a`sgrvhtoak. orstcy, hkm
pgrlhps fast ofparthktcy, ok fhky cabhc iavgrkfgkt
systgfs, vatgrs ma kat pgrbgovg pgroamob fukobophc gcgbtoaks
hs pacotobhccy soikojobhkt gvgkts `gbhusg tlg `glhvoaur aj
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8/8/2019 Local Government Failure
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cabhc iavgrkfgkts os sgvgrgcy bakstrhokgm hkm fhkopuchtgm
`y sthtg hkm khtoakhc iavgrkfgkts. 9abhc iavgrkfgkts
sofpcy >mak*t fhttgr ok tlg sblgfg aj tlokis*. ar gxhfpcg,
@hocgy (8, p.4! katgs tlht ok @rothok >`y tlg ghrcy 8/s,
bgktrhc iavgrkfgkt morgbtcy baktraccgm h`aut twa&tlorms aj
cabhc iavgrkfgkt okbafg hkm hcsa lhm pawgrs ta bhp cabhc
rhtgs hs wgcc hs lhvoki h soikojobhkt ak atlgr rgvgkug
saurbgs subl hs rgkts jar fukobophc lausoki*. #t os tlus lhrmcy
surprosoki tlht kat akcy wgrg vatgr turkauts caw ok @rotosl
cabhc iavgrkfgkt gcgbtoaks, `ut vatgrs hcsa sggfgm ta vogw
tlgf >Bhs cottcg farg tlhk apokoak paccs ak tlg papuchroty aj
bgktrhc iavgrkfgkt* (@aykg, 8", p.!. =ofochrcy, wotl
rgspgbt ta ;gw Mghchkm cabhc iavgrkfgkt, Ggrr (8, p.5!
lhs a`sgrvgm tlht >tlgrg os h caw turkaut ht gcgbtoaks, usuhccy
ka farg tlhk / pgrbgkt, mgspotg pasthc vatoki*. 6vgk ok tlg
1kotgm =thtgs, wlgrg cabhc iavgrkfgkts gk2ay baksomgrh`cg
hutakafy, vatgr hphtly os fast prakaukbgm ht tlg cabhc
cgvgc. @y bafphrosak, ok sthtg hkm khtoakhc gcgbtoaks vatgr
phrtobophtoak rhtgs lhvg igkgrhccy `ggk su`sthktohccy loilgr
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(9auilcok, 8"!, gxbgpt ok bauktrogs wotl bafpucsary vatoki,
co$g Hustrhcoh.
H sgbakm rghsak jar irghtgr vatgr hphtly ok cabhc
iavgrkfgkt gcgbtoaks rgsomgs ok tlg jhbt tlht ok fhky
bauktrogs tlgsg gcgbtoaks hrg kat baktgstgm hcaki phrty
pacotobhc cokgs, hkm gvgk ok tlasg khtoaks wlgrg pacotobhc
phrtogs ma phrtobophtg, fhky bhkmomhtgs ma kat lhvg phrty
hjjocohtoak hkm phrty hjjocohtoaks fhy ok hky gvgkt `g fubl
wgh$gr tlhk ht tlg sthtg ar jgmgrhc cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt.
Hbbarmokicy, vatgrs ma kat lhvg tlg okjarfhtoakhc `gkgjots aj
phrty pchtjarfs ta hssost tlgf ok fh$oki okjarfgm blaobgs.
ar oksthkbg, ok tlg 1kotgm =thtgs, pacotobhc phrtogs ajtgk pchy
cottcg jarfhc racg ok fukobophc gcgbtoaks chrigcy `gbhusg ok
fhky 2urosmobtoaks tlgy hrg mg`hrrgm jraf phrtobophtoak hs h
baksgqugkbg aj tlg ghrcogr >rgjarf favgfgkt* hofgm ht
rgfavoki barruptoak jraf Hfgrobhk ur`hk pacotobs (Lhwcgy,
8-!. Hcaki sofochr cokgs, ok fhky phrts aj Hustrhcoh,
okbcumoki rgioakhc hkm rurhc ;gw =autl hcgs, cakisthkmoki
bakvgktoak usuhccy prgbcumgs fukobophc bhkmomhtgs jraf
hmaptoki gxpcobot phrtoshk pchtjarfs.
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'gmoh rgpartoki aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt gcgbtoaks os typobhccy
fubl cgss bafprglgksovg hkm ukqugstoakoki tlhk jar
bafphrh`cg jgmgrhc hkm sthtg `hccats hkm baksgqugktcy
hjjarms vatgrs fubl cgss appartukoty ta `gbafg wgcc&
hbquhoktgm wotl tlg pacoby pchtjarfs aj okmovomuhc bhkmomhtgs
sthkmoki jar gcgbtoak. lgtlgr tlos os h bhusg ar sofpcy hk
gjjgbt aj vatgr hphtly os h faat paokt, `ut ot kgvgrtlgcgss
surgcy hbbaukts jar h irghtgr mgirgg aj occ&okjarfgm vatoki ok
fukobophc gcgbtoaks tlhk tlgor bauktgrphrts ht loilgr cgvgcs aj
iavgrkfgkt.
@gbhusg aj tlgor cawgr pu`cob prajocgs hkm bafpcobhtgm
oktgrjhbg, iavgrkhkbg hkm fhkhigfgkt racgs ok fukobophc
iavgrkfgkt hrg ajtgk bakjusgm ok tlg gygs aj fhky boto?gks,
wla bhkkat rghmocy mostokiuosl `gtwggk gcgbtgm
rgprgsgkthtovgs hkm prajgssoakhc pu`cob sgrvhkts. %lus,
pgrbgovgm rgspakso`ocoty jar phst pacoby subbgssgs hkm jhocurgs
os mojjobuct ta hssoik `gtwggk tlg baukboccars hkm fhkhigrs.
'argavgr, tlg baffottgg systgfs blhrhbtgrostob aj kufgraus
cabhc iavgrkfgkts sgrvg ta jurtlgr bakjusg tlg qugstoak aj
rgspakso`ocoty (Ggrr, 8"!.
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okhccy, tlg khturg aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt hbtovotogs otsgcj
fh$gs hky gvhcuhtoak mojjobuct. 'ukobophcotogs typobhccy mgcovgr
h vhst rhkig aj sgrvobgs, gvgk wlgrg tlgor jabus os ak tlg
rgchtovgcy khrraw >sgrvobgs ta prapgrty* mofgksoak aj mgcovgry.
1kmgr tlgsg borbufsthkbgs, kat akcy os fakotaroki aj sgrvobg
mgcovgry hk akgraus ths$, `ut hbbaukth`ocoty os gxtrgfgcy
mojjobuct ta gsth`cosl. #t os tlus cottcg wakmgr tlht boto?gks
rgfhok hphtlgtob h`aut tlg apgrhtoaks aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt.
%lg rgchtovgcy loil mgirgg aj vatgr hphtly ok cabhc
iavgrkfgkt, ok bafphrosak wotl ots khtoakhc hkm pravokbohc
bauktgrphrts, pravomgs irghtgr sbapg jar iavgrkfgkt jhocurg
ht tlos cgvgc aj iavgrkhkbg. #k igkgrhc, ot bhk `g hriugm tlht
hphtlgtob vatgrs foilt kat akcy gcgbt okhmgquhtg
rgprgsgkthtovgs, `ut hcsa jhoc ta sbrutokosg tlgor pgrjarfhkbg
wotl h sujjobogkt mgirgg aj roiaur. ar gxhfpcg, wlgrg vatgrs
hrg bafphrhtovgcy occ okjarfgm h`aut tlg gcgbtoak pchtjarfs aj
baukboccars tlgy hrg ok h paar pasotoak ta 2umig wlgtlgr
su`sgqugktcy gcgbtgm bhkmomhtgs lhvg okmggm fgt
gxpgbthtoaks ar bhrrogm aut tlgor fhkmhtgs. =ofochrcy, iovgk
hbbaukth`ocoty hkm fakotaroki mojjobuctogs, boto?gks fhy
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gxpgrogkbg mojjobuctogs ok hsbgrthokoki law wgcc fukobophcotogs
hrg pgrjarfoki hkm wla os rgspakso`cg jar hky katgwartly
pra`cgfs tlht fhy hrosg. %los sggfs ta pravomg cabhc
iavgrkfgkt cgioschtars wotl irghtgr sbapg jar appartukostob
`glhvoaur tlhk tlgor baccghiugs ht loilgr cgvgcs aj
iavgrkfgkt hkm hbbarmokicy fh$g cabhc iavgrkfgkt farg
prakg ta wlht `atl +accgry hkm hccos (8! hkm gos`ram
(8"! bchssojy hs cgioschtovg jhocurg. %los fhy gxpchok wly ok
fhky rghc&warcm 2urosmobtoaks, sthtg hkm jgmgrhc iavgrkfgkts
safgtofgs rgthok sthtutary pawgrs ta avgrromg tlg mgbosoaks
aj cabhc iavgrkfgkts ar gvgk suspgkm cabhc iavgrkfgkts hkm
hrrhkig kgw gcgbtoaks.
HR_FFG]POB OKJAPFH]OAK HKM BAWKBOCCAP
BH^]WPG
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bafphrh`cg rgchtoakslops `gtwggk pacotobohks hkm pu`cob
sgrvhkts ht loilgr cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt. Jakhcm oktra`g
(8, p.5-/! lhs pasgm tlg bgktrhc qugstoak ok tlos baktgxt
`y hs$oki >law fubl okjcugkbg mags tlg `urghubrhby lhvg
avgr wlht (hkm law fubl! iavgrkfgkts maI* )kg why aj
ukmgrsthkmoki tlg khturg aj tlgsg rgchtoakslops os tlrauil
higkby tlgary.
#j wg bakbgovg aj tlg pu`cob sgbtar ok h rgprgsgkthtovg
mgfabrhby hs `goki bakstotutgm `y hk oktgrcab$oki sgrogs aj
prokbophc&higkt rgchtoakslops, tlgk tlg ofparthkbg aj higkby
jhocurg `gbafgs hpphrgkt. ar gxhfpcg, 'ag (8"5, p. !
a`sgrvgs tlht >tlg wlacg aj pacotobs bhk `g sggk hs h blhok aj
prokbophc&higkt rgchtoakslops, jraf boto?gk ta pacotobohk ta
`urghubrhtob supgroar ta `urghubrhtob su`armokhtg hkm ak
mawk tlg logrhrbly aj iavgrkfgkt ta tlg cawgst&cgvgc
`urghubrhts wla hbtuhccy mgcovgr sgrvobgs morgbtcy ta boto?gks*.
%los vogw cghms ta hk hpprahbl ta pu`cob sgbtar rgjarf tlht
sgg$s ta rgmubg tlg sbapg jar higkby jhocurg ok tlgsg
rgchtoakslops.
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g baktgkm tlht tlg higkt3prokbophc pra`cgfs `gtwggk
gcgbtgm rgprgsgkthtovgs hkm prajgssoakhc `urghubrhts ok tlg
cabhc iavgrkfgkt focogu hrg co$gcy ta `g fubl farg hbutg
tlhk ok tlgor jgmgrhc hkm sthtg bauktgrphrts. Nhroaus
hriufgkts bhk `g hmvhkbgm ok suppart aj tlos baktgktoak.
ar oksthkbg, autsomg chrig fgtrapacothk cabhc iavgrkfgkts,
gcgbtgm fukobophc rgprgsgkthtovgs typobhccy lacm phrt&tofg
pasotoaks hkm hrg rgfukgrhtgm hbbarmokicy. #k tlg fh2aroty aj
bhsgs tlgy hrg tlus a`coigm ta lhvg hctgrkhtovg jucc&tofg
gfpcayfgkt kat akcy ta susthok tlgfsgcvgs gbakafobhccy ok
tlg slart ruk, `ut hcsa hs h jarf aj cakigr&tgrf oksurhkbg
hihokst tlg passo`cg jhocurg aj rg&gcgbtoak ok tlg juturg. %lgy
hrg tlus ukh`cg ta mgvatg tlgor jucc httgktoak ta tlg mutogs aj
tlgor gcgbtgm ajjobg. )kg baksgqugkbg os ajtgk hk okh`ocoty ta
fhstgr tlg bafpcgxotogs hkm fokutohg aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt
jokhkbgs hkm sgrvobg mgcovgry. %los cghms ta h straki rgcohkbg
ak tlg hmvobg hkm okjarfhtoak pravomgm `y prajgssoakhc
fhkigrs. accawoki tlg gbakafob tlgary aj `urghubrhby,
tlgsg fhkhigrs fhy `g fatovhtgm ta pursug a`2gbtovgs ok
bakjcobt wotl tlasg gspausgm `y gcgbtgm rgprgsgkthtovgs.
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'argavgr, ok hbbarmhkbg wotl higkby tlgary hkm tlg chb$ aj
bhphboty jar gcgbtgm rgprgsgkthtovgs ta fakotar
prokbophc3higkt rgchtoakslops wotl fhkhigrs hmgquhtgcy,
fhkhigrs hrg wgcc pchbgm ta gxpcaot tlg rgsucthkt higkby
jhocurg. 7ut mojjgrgktcy, sokbg tlg >lhkms&ak* khturg aj tlgor
2a`s fghks fhkhigrs hrg `aukm ta `g fubl `gttgr okjarfgm
tlhk baukboccars, hkm sokbg fhkhigrs hrg tlg blogj pacoby
hmvosgrs ta baukboccars, ot sggfs co$gcy tlht `y fhkopuchtoki
tlg hsyffgtry aj okjarfhtoak ta tlgor hmvhkthig, fhkhigrs
bhk >bhpturg* baukboccars hkm tlgrg`y tlg pacoby autbafgs
tlgy mgsorg. Hctlauil hkhcaiaus pra`cgfs bcghrcy gxost ht
loilgr cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt, `gbhusg gcgbtgm
rgprgsgkthtovgs ok khtoakhc hkm sthtg iavgrkfgkts sgrvg ok h
jucc&tofg bhphboty, tlgy bhk mgvatg fubl farg tofg hkm
gkgriy ta fhstgroki tlg bafpcgxotogs aj tlg `urghux tlgy
avgrsgg hkm hrg tlus kat hs `hmcy moshmvhkthigm `y
pra`cgfs aj hsyffgtrobhc okjarfhtoak hkm httgkmhkt bhpturg
hs tlgor baccghiugs ok cabhc iavgrkfgkt.
H sofochr hkm rgchtgm hriufgkt mgrovgs jraf tlg jhbt tlht
gcgbtgm fukobophc baukboccars sgcmaf lhvg hbbgss ta pacoby
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hmvosgrs ht hcc, kgvgr fokm hmvosgrs wotl h mgthocgm
$kawcgmig aj tlg war$okis aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt. @y baktrhst,
ot os baffakpchbg ok sthtg hkm jgmgrhc iavgrkfgkts jar
gcgbtgm rgprgsgkthtovgs ta lhvg baksthkt hbbgss ta
prajgssoakhc hmvosgrs hkm rgsghrblgrs wgcc vgrsgm ok tlg
oktrobhbogs aj pacoby jarfuchtoak hkm ofpcgfgkthtoak wla bhk
hssost tlgf ok gvhcuhtoki hkm >joctgroki* okjarfhtoak jraf
pu`cob sgrvobg fhkhigrs. locst tlg prgsgkbg aj subl pacoby
hmvosgrs hkm rgsghrblgrs a`voauscy bhkkat bafpcgtgcy kuccojy
tlg pra`cgf aj hsyffgtrob `glhvoaur ok tlg oktgrhbtoaks
`gtwggk pacotobohks hkm pu`cob sgbtar gxgbutovgs hkm tlus
hctaigtlgr rgfavg bhpturg, ot surgcy iags safg why tawhrms
avgrbafoki tlgsg pra`cgfs.
Higkmh baktrac rgprgsgkts hk hmmotoakhc fghks `y wlobl
wgcc&okjarfgm `urghubrhts lacm h bafphrhtovg hmvhkthig
avgr tlgor rgchtovgcy occ&okjarfgm pacotobhc fhstgrs hkm bhk
tlus aut&fhkaguvrg tlgf ok higkt3prokbophc tgrfs. #k tlgor
>sgttgr famgc*, Jafgr hkm Jasgktlhc (8"! lhvg slawk law
`urghubrhts bhk baktrac tlg autbafgs aj vatgs `y gcgbtgm
baukboccars (ar hbtuhc boto?gks ok rgjgrgkmh! `y spgbojyoki tlg
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hctgrkhtovgs wlobl hrg vatgm upak. 'arg spgbojobhccy,
baukboccars fhy `g bhccgm ta vatg ak h phrtobuchr `umigt
prapashc. #j h fh2aroty jhvaur tlg prapashc, tlgk ot os
hbbgptgm. #j h fh2aroty rg2gbt tlg prapashc, tlgk gxpgkmoturg
os sgt ht h prgmgtgrfokgm >rgvgrsoakhry cgvgc*. #k gssgkbg,
>tlg cawgr tlg rgvgrsoak cgvgc, tlg loilgr tlg `umigt tlg
`urghubrhtob sgttgr os h`cg ta gxtrhbt jraf vatgrs*, (oktra`g,
8, p.5-"!, hkm oj tlg rgvgrsoakhry cgvgc aj gxpgkmoturg os
sgt loilgr tlhk tlg prg&vatg gxpgkmoturg, tlgk tlos hcsa
hccaws jar `umigt irawtl.
okhccy, strhtgiogs aj >sgcgbtovg `glhvoaur* (@rgtak hkm
oktra`g, 8"4!, gspgbohccy >sgcgbtovg gjjobogkby* (oktra`g,
8! bhk `g gf`hr$gm upak `y `urghubrhts usoki tlgor
hmvhkthig aj hsyffgtrob okjarfhtoak. oktra`g (8,
p.5-8! mgsbro`gs sgcgbtovg gjjobogkby hs h fghks `y wlobl >B
`urghubrhts baktrac tlgor fhstgrs* blaobgs `y `goki gjjobogkt
ht tlg tlokis tlgy whkt ta ma, hkm okgjjobogkt ht tlasg tlgy ma
kat*. %lus wlgk gcgbtgm rgprgsgkthtovgs a`coig pu`cob
fhkhigrs ta ofpcgfgkt pacobogs hihokst tlgor wocc, tlgsg bhk
`g bakjaukmgm `y mgco grhtg okgjjobogkby uktoc tlgy hrg
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wotlmrhwk. :akvgrsgcy, ok hrghs wlgrg `urghubrhts wosl ta
gxphkm apgrhtoaks, tlgy bhk gksurg gjjobogkt mgcovgry hkm
`roki tlos ta tlg httgktoak aj pacotobohks.
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rgbaikosgm tlht okmovomuhcs hkm oktgrgst iraups sgge ta okjcugkbg #atl
pacoby jarfuchtoak hkm ofpcgfgkthtoak ok sgcj"oktgrgstgm whys$
%lg hkhcysos aj oktgrgst iraups ok rgmostro`utoki wghctl hkm
pawgr tlrauil tlg pacotobhc prabgss lhs `ggk hpprahblgm `y
gbakafosts jraf ht cghst tlrgg fhok tlgargtobhc morgbtoaks.
orstcy, hkm pgrlhps fast ofparthktcy, tlg tlgary aj rgkt&
sgg$oki trogs ta gxpchok tlg whys ok wlobl boto?gks hs wghctl
fhxofosgrs sgg$ ta usg iavgrkfgkt oktgrvgktoak ta brghtg
gbakafob rgkts jar tlgfsgcvgs. %lg rgsucthkt `urigakoki
cotgrhturg lhs pravomgm jhsbokhtoki oksoilts okta tlg oktgrpchy
`gtwggk sthtg oktgrvgktoak hkm fhxofosoki gbakafob higkts
(@ublhkhk, %accosak hkm %uccab$, 8"/!.
H sgbakm tlgargtobhc pgrspgbtovg ak tlg racg aj oktgrgst
iraups ok tlg pacotobhc prabgss mgrovgs jraf 'hkbur )csak*s
(8! poakggroki war$ ak mostro`utoakhc bahcotoaks. )csak
sauilt ta pravomg h igkgrhcosgm hkhcysos aj >Btlg pra`cgf aj
baccgbtovg blaobg, tlg prosakgr*s mocgffh, tlg jrgg&romgr
pra`cgf hkm tlg bakmotoaks aj baffak jhtg, mgpgkmoki ak
tlg baktgxt (ar mosbopcokg! ok wlobl ot hrosgs* (@hrry hkm
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Lhrmok, 8"4, p.8! `y okva$oki tlg gbakafob phrhmoif aj
rhtoakhc blaobg ok iraup ar baccgbtovg `glhvoaur.
okhccy, gkmaigkaus pacoby tlgary, jorst mgvgcapgm `y
'higg, @rab$ hkm auki (8"!, bhk hcsa slgm coilt ak tlg
fhkkgr ok wlobl oktgrgst iraups bhk fhkopuchtg tlg pacotobhc
prabgss ta sgburg tlgor mgsorgm mostro`utoakhc autbafgs. #k
gssgkbg, tlos tlgargtobhc pgrspgbtovg okvgstoihtgs tlg khturg
aj gbakafob hkm sabohc pacoby jarfuchtoak hkm trogs ta gxpchok
wly wgcjhrg&rgmuboki pacoby mostartoaks gxost sokbg tlgy hrg
kat rhtoakhc jraf tlg paokt aj vogw aj sabogty hs h wlacg.
'higg, @rab$ hkm auki (8"! mostokiuosl `gtwggk tlg
bakbgpts aj gbakafob gjjobogkby hkm pacotobhc gjjobogkby. %lgy
hriug tlht >gbakafobhccy gjjobogkt pacobogs brghtg irghtgr
ihoks tlhk cassgs wlgrghs okgjjobogkt pacobogs ma tlg rgvgrsg*
('higg, @rab$ hkm auki, 8", p.8!. @y baktrhst, pacotobhccy
gjjobogkt pacobogs hrg tlasg wlobl okbrghsg tlg pra`h`ocoty aj
gcgbtoak aj phrtogs hkm bhkmomhtgs. 'argavgr, h trhmg&ajj
igkgrhccy gxosts `gtwggk gbakafob gjjobogkby hkm pacotobhc
gjjobogkby.
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Hctlauil pacoby jarfuchtoak hkm ofpcgfgkthtoak ht hcc
cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt wocc `g blhrhbtgrosgm `y rgkt&sgg$oki
mostro utoakhc bahcotoaks fhxofosoki sgcj oktgrgst ok h prabgss
aj gkmaigkaus pacoby mgvgcapfgkt, ot sggfs co$gcy tlht
pawgrjuc oktgrgst iraups fhy `g phrtobuchrcy subbgssjuc ok
tlg cabhc iavgrkfgkt splgrg. g lhvg hriugm ghrcogr tlht
fukobophc pacotobohks igkgrhccy wotlaut straki phrty
hjjocohtoaks hrg ajtgk gcgbtgm ak occ&mgjokgm pacoby pchtjarfs `y
hphtlgtob hkm occ&okjarfgm vatgrs hkm tlgor hbtovotogs hrg
typobhccy kat su`2gbt ta tlg shfg mgirgg aj fgmoh hkm atlgr
sbrutoky hs tlgor baccghiugs ht loilgr cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt.
=ofochrcy, prajgssoakhc `urghubrhts gk2ay jhr irghtgr
mosbrgtoak hs h baksgqugkbg aj tlg hbutg hsyffgtry aj
okjarfhtoak `gtwggk tlgf hkm tlgor phrt&tofg pacotobhc
fhstgrs. 'argavgr, autsomg aj tlg Hfgrobhk pacotobhc systgf,
wotl ots straki gfplhsos ak bakirgssoakhc baffottggs hkm
atlgr mgcgihtgm pawgrs, hkm ok baktrhst ta gstfokstgr stycg
phrcohfgkthry mgfabrhby, cabhc iavgrkfgkt rgcogs fubl
farg ak sthkmoki baffottggs ta avgrsgg ots apgrhtoaks. ar
oksthkbg, fukobophc baukbocs usuhccy lhvg >phr$s hkm
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ihrmgks* baffottggs ta ruk ots pu`cob apgk sphbgs prairhfs,
>rahms hkm fhoktgkhkbg* baffottggs ta morgbt ots pu`cob
tlarauiljhrg apgrhtoaks, hkm sa jartl. #ktgrgst iraups bhk
tlus rghmocy omgktojy spgbojob pacotobohks wotl pawgrs avgr
phrtobuchr hspgbts aj fukobophc hbtovoty hkm thrigt tlgsg
okmovomuhcs hbbarmokicy. %lgy bhk hcsa jarf hccohkbgs wotl
fukobophc fhkhigrs ok blhrig aj tlg vhroaus prairhfs hkm
httgfpt ta okjcugkbg tlg hmvobg tlgsg `urghubrhts iovg ta
baffottgg fgf`grs. #k tlos why >orak trohkicgs* fhmg up aj
gcgbtgm baffottgg baukboccars, prajgssoakhc fhkhigrs hkm
oktgrgst iraups bhk hrosg wlobl mafokhtg pacoby fh$oki ok
spgbojob hrghs. )jtgk tlgsg oktgrgst iraups wocc `g fhmg up aj
su`&baktrhbtars wla ukmgrth$g apgrhtoaks jar fukobophcotogs,
suppcogrs wla pravomg iaams hkm sgrvobgs ta baukbocs,
prapgrty mgvgcapgrs wla `uocm hkm rgkavhtg rgsomgktohc hkm
atlgr hrghs, hkm `usokgssgs tlht gk2ay prgjgrgktohc ?akoki
hrrhkigfgkts hkm cobgksoki hirggfgkts. %lg trophrtotg
bafpasotoak aj tlgsg bakjcugkt baccumoki hssabohtoaks & ar
>trohkicgs*& hkm tlg mojjobucty aj pgkgtrhtoki okta tlgf & ar
tlgor >orak* khturg & fghk tlht tlgsg orak trohkicgs wocc tgkm
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kat akcy ta `g mafokhkt jar baksomgrh`cg pgroams, `ut hcsa
sth`cg tlrauil tofg.
Jgkt&sgg$oki ok tlos sotuhtoak wocc hof ht tlg jarfhtoak hkm
pratgbtoak aj orak trohkicgs hkm bauktgrvhocoki rgkt&sgg$oki
`y okmovomuhcs hkm iraups autsomg aj trohkicgs wocc baksost aj
httgfpts ta 2aok gxostoki trohkicgs ar rgpchbg gxthkt trohkicgs
wotl kgw akgs. )csak*s (8! bhtgiaroshtoak aj oktgrgst
iraups hs gotlgr patgktohccy subbgssjuc (>provocgigm*! ar
oklgrgktcy uksubbgssjuc (>chtgkt*! wocc mgtgrfokg tlg autbafg
aj rgkt&sgg$oki hbtovoty. Jgsucthkt pacoby jarfuchtoak hkm
ofpcgfgkthtoak bhk `g blhrhbtgrosgm hs gkmaigkaus ok tlg
sgksg tlht ot rgprgsgkts tlg oktgrpchy aj tlg oktgrgsts aj tlg
pacotobohks, `urghubrhts hkm oktgrgst iraups wla jarf tlg
orak trohkicg ok qugstoak.
@hocgy (8! hriugs tlht mostro`utoakhc bahcotoaks hrg co$gcy
ta lhvg h irghtgr mgcgtgroaus gjjgbt ak rgsaurbg hccabhtoak ok
cabhc iavgrkfgkt tlhk ht loilgr cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt ok h
jgmgrhtoak. Lg baktgkms tlht h loil prapartoak aj cabhc thx
phyfgkts hrg joxgm `y vhroaus rucgs, kat cghst prapgrty thxgs
wlobl mgpgkm ak chkm vhcug, hkm ma kat vhry soikojobhktcy
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wotl tlg baksufptoak aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt sgrvobgs. 1kmgr
tlgsg borbufsthkbgs, mostro`utoakhc bahcotoaks lhvg hk
okbgktovg ta httgfpt ta blhkig tlg cgvgc aj sgrvobg pravosoak
ok tlgor jhvaur ar ta famojy tlg mostro`utoak aj sgrvobg
pravosoak wotl h iovgk hkm chrigcy gxaigkauscy mgtgrfokgm
joxgm tathc fukobophc `umigt. Hbbarmokicy, tlg hbtovotogs aj
oktgrgst iraups wocc jabus lghvocy >Bak tlg mostro`utoak aj
okbrgfgkthc gxpgkmoturgs hkm fubl httgktoak os phom ta
hkkuhc `umigt blhkigs wlobl hrg sfhcc ok rgchtoak ta tlg
avgrhcc `umigt* (@hocgy, 8, p.!. ;a mostro`utoakhc
bahcotoak wocc `g woccoki ta hbbgpt h jhcc ok tlg sgrvobgs ot
rgbgovgs `gbhusg ka barrgspakmoki blhkig ok ots thx coh`ocoty
baucm abbur, iovgk tlg strubturg aj fukobophc jokhkbgs. =okbg
appasoki oktgrgst iraups fhy tgkm ta kgutrhcosg ghbl atlgr*s
okjcugkbg, gxostoki gxpgkmoturg rgiofgs waucm tgkm ta rgfhok
joxgm. %los fghks oktgr hcoh tlht cabhc iavgrkfgkts
gxpgrogkbg irght mojjobuctogs ok fggtoki >blhkigm
saboagbakafob bakmotoaks*, wotl tlg rgsuct tlht hccabhtovg
okgjjobogkbogs waucm okgvoth`cy oktgksojy.
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@aykg (8"! `gcogvgs tlht tlg mgirgg aj >jrhifgkthtoak*
ar mgbgktrhcoshtoak aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt foilt hjjgbt tlg
mgfhkm jar >sphtohccy movoso`cg* pu`cob iaams hs appasgm ta
>sphtohccy okmovoso`cg* pu`cob iaams. =phtohccy movoso`cg iaams
`gkgjot phrtobuchr cabhcotogs rhtlgr tlhk gkbafphssoki
kgoil`auroki ?akgs wlgrghs sphtohccy okmovoso cg iaams
`gkgjot fubl irghtgr hrghs. %lus rgsomgkts aj hs iovgk
2urosmobtoak wocc prgjgr rgchtovgcy farg sphtohccy movoso`cg iaams
ak iraukms tlht tlg `gkgjots aj tlgsg iaams wocc jhcc
gxbcusovgcy ak tlgf hkm hm2hbgkt 2urosmobtoaks wocc kat `g
h`cg ta >jrgg romg* ak tlg jruots aj tlgor rhtgs hkm thxgs. H
sofochr hriufgkt bhk `g hmvhkbgm wotl rgspgbt ta tlg pawgr
hkm gkmuroki khturg aj orak trohkicgs. g waucm gxpgbt tlht
tlg irghtgr tlg mgirgg aj jrhifgkthtoak, tlg farg soikojobhkt
waucm `g tlg ofphbt aj orak trohkicgs ak pacoby fh$oki. Hjtgr
hcc, sfhcc cabhc iavgrkfgkts wocc httrhbt cgss vatgr oktgrgst,
gk2ay fokofhc avgrsoilt `y gcgbtgm pacotobohks, hkm mrhw cottcg
fgmoh httgktoak ok bafphrosak ta chrigr fukobophc gktotogs
wlgrg tlg >sth$gs hrg loilgr*. Hbbarmokicy, orak trohkicgs hrg
pra`h`cy ghsogr ta jarf ok jrhifgktgm systgfs.
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%lg passo`ocoty aj barruptoak wotlok orak trohkicgs hcsa
hppghrs ta `g irghtgr ht tlg cabhc iavgrkfgkt cgvgc tlhk ht
loilgr togrs aj iavgrkhkbg. ar gxhfpcg, Jammgk hkm Jasg&
Hb$grfhk (8! paokt aut tlht tlg >sfhcckgss* hkm
>oktofhby* aj fukobophc 2urosmobtoaks fh$gs tlgf gspgbohccy
susbgpto`cg ta barruptoak. =ofochrcy, hjtgr rgvogwoki tlg
gvomgkbg, =ushk Jasg&Hb$grfhk (8, p.85! a`sgrvgs tlht
>tlg fast barrupt hkm phtrakhig&rommgk iavgrkfgkts sggf
ta `g ht tlg cabhc cgvgc ok fast bauktrogs, okbcumoki mgvgcapgm
bauktrogs subl hs tlg 1kotgm =thtgs hkm
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tlg hbtuhc basts hkm #gkgjots aj iavgrkfgkt fhy #g baksostgktcy
fosbakstrugm #y tlg botozgkry aj h iovgk josbhc +urosmobtoak$ ovg spgbojob
jarfs aj josbhc occusoak bhk #g omgktojogm (Maccgry hkm Yartlokitak, 8??-!,
twa aj wlobl hrg gspgbohccy ofparthkt ok tlg baktgxt aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt$
orstcy, tlg >jcyphpgr gjjgbt*, sa&bhccgm sokbg >fakgy stob$s
wlgrg ot lots*, rgjgrs ta tlg lypatlgsosgm tgkmgkby jar
bhtgiarobhc cufp&suf irhkts jraf jgmgrhc ta sthtg hkm cabhc
iavgrkfgkts ta okbrghsg pu`cob gxpgkmoturg `y farg tlhk hk
gquovhcgkt okbrghsg ok okbafg jraf atlgr saurbgs. %los
prapasotoak baktrhvgkgs tlg >gquovhcgkbg tlgargf*, h bgktrhc
prapasotoak aj tlg trhmotoakhc tlgary aj oktgr&iavgrkfgkthc
irhkts ()htgs, 84!, wlobl lacms tlht h cufp&suf irhkt ta h
josbhc 2urosmobtoak wocc stofuchtg tlg shfg okbrghsg ok
gxpgkmoturg tlht waucm jcaw jraf hk gquovhcgkt okbrghsg ok
tlg provhtg okbafgs aj pgapcg wla bafprosg tlg papuchtoak
aj tlg 2urosmobtoak. #t waucm sggf tlht vatgrs fospgrbgovg
irhkts hs >iojts* ta tlgor 2urosmobtoaks hkm avgrcaa$ tlg jhbt
tlht tlgor thx coh`ocoty rosgs ht loilgr cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt.
+gspotg safg rgsgrvhtoaks h`aut tlg fgtlamacaiogs
gfpcaygm ta okvgstoihtg tlg rghc&warcm prgvhcgkbg aj tlg
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jcyphpgr gjjgbt ok cabhc iavgrkfgkt, ot hppghrs tlht gfporobhc
gvomgkbg gxosts ok suppart aj tlg famgc, hctlauil tlos
bakbcusoak slaucm `g quhcojogm `y katoki tlht okstotutoakhc
strubturgs ukmgrcyoki tlg irhkts prabgss ok hky bauktry (ar
tlg pra`cgf aj >gkmaigkgoty*! a`voauscy pchy h fh2ar racg ok
mgtgrfokoki tlg strgkitl aj tlg jcyphpgr gjjgbt (artlokitak
hkm +accgry, 8!.
;atwotlsthkmoki tlgargtobhc mojjobuctogs ok gxpchokoki tlg
jcyphpgr gjjgbt (@hocgy, 8!, ot sggfs bcghr tlht tlg
stofuchtary gjjgbts aj oktgr&iavgrkfgkthc irhkts ak cabhc
iavgrkfgkt gxpgkmoturg foilt pravg ta `g h fh2ar saurbg aj
iavgrkfgkt jhocurg ht tlos cgvgc aj iavgrkfgkt. Hjtgr hcc,
hraukm - pgrbgkt aj Hfgrobhk hkm -/ pgrbgkt aj Hustrhcohk
cabhc iavgrkfgkt rgvgkugs mgrovg jraf irhkts jraf loilgr
cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt (artlokitak hkm +accgry, 8, p.53!,
wlgrghs ok tlg 1kotgm Gokimaf tlg barrgspakmoki joiurg os
hcfast "/ pgrbgkt (@hocgy, 8, p."!.
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gquovhcgkt okbrghsg ok tlg okbafg aj cabhc rgsomgkts.
Hctlauil tlg jrhfgwar$ wotlok wlobl tlg oktgriavgrkfgkthc
irhkt prabgss abburs mojjgrs ok atlgr hmvhkbgm bauktrogs, hkm
wocc a`voauscy okjcugkbg tlg gxphksoakhry gjjgbts aj tlgsg
irhkts hbbarmokicy, tlg rgsuctoki hccabhtovg okgjjobogkbogs hrg
hcsa co$gcy ta `g su`sthktohc.
'gbakmcy, .rgktgr occusoak lhs *uoktgssgktohc soikojobhkbg ok tlg cabhc
iavgrkfgkt focogu$ /los jarf aj josbhc occusoak lacms tlht hk okbrghsg ok tlg
prapartoak aj prapgrty rgktgrs ok h iovgk fukobophc +urosmobtoak wocc okbrghsg
tlg cgvgc aj pu#cob gxpgkmoturgs bgtgros phro`us$ /lg prgsufptoak os tlht
sokbg tlg profhry rgvgkug aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt mgrovgs jraf prapgrty thxgs,
akcy tlasg vatgrs wla awk prapgrty hkm hrg tlus morgbtcy cgvogm wocc
barrgbtcy gstofhtg tlg thx"probg aj cabhc pu#cob iaams$ >ctlauil wg baucm
gxpgbt tlht loilgr prapgrty thxgs wocc #g phssgm ak ta rgktgrs tlrauil loilgr
rgkts, tlg rgktgrs occusoak lypatlgsos baktgkms tlht h mos+ukbtoak gxosts
#gtwggk h rgkthc vatgrs pgrbgptoak aj tlg cgvgc aj fukobophc sgrvobgs hkm tlg
vhcug aj rgkts phom$ >bbarmokicy, rgktgrs wocc vatg jar loilgr cgvgcs aj cabhc
pu#cob iaam gxpgkmoturg tlhk prapgrty awkgrs$
> baksomgrh#cg #amy aj gfporobhc gvomgkbg lhs #ggk hfhssgm ak tlg
rgktgrs occusoak lypatlgsos hkm tlg wgoilt aj tlos gvomgkbg hppghrs ta
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suppart tlg lypatlgsos (sgg, jar gxhfpcg, Maccgry hkm Yartlokitak, 8??-,
/h#cg !$ 0awgvgr, sgvgrhc sblachrs lhvg hriugm tlht .rgktgr rhtoakhcoty
foilt #gttgr gxpchok tlg astgkso#cg prapgksoty aj rgktgrs ta suppart loilgr
cgvgcs aj cabhc gxpgkmoturg$ >bbarmoki ta tlos vogw, ok tlg slart"ruk prapgrty
rgkthcs hrg kat hjjgbtgm #y prapgrty thxgs hkm sa okbrghsgs ok thxgs wocc kat #g
phssgm ak ta rgktgrs (2hrr hkm Mhvos, 8??-!$ raf tlg pgrspgbtovg aj cabhc
iavgrkfgkt pacobyfhegrs, wlgtlgr ar kat rgktgr rhtoakhcoty gxpchoks safg ar
hcc aj rgktgr occusoak sggfs cgss ofparthkt tlhk tlg puthtovg jhbt tlht h irghtgr
prapartoak aj rgktgrs ok h +urosmobtoak wocc tgkm ta #ohs gxpgkmoturg upwhrms$
=gktgr occusoak fhegs cabhc iavgrkfgkt gspgbohccy susbgpto#cg ta
iavgrkfgkt jhocurg jar tlg a#voaus rghsak tlht loilgr cgvgcs aj iavgrkfgkt
hrg fubl cgss rgcohkt ak prapgrty thxgs hs h saurbg aj rgvgkug$ &argavgr,
rhtg"bhppoki, rgkt baktracs hkm atlgr jhbtars wlobl okjcugkbg tlg kgxus
#gtwggk rgkthcs, prapgrty thxgs hkm fukobophc okbafg hrg typobhccy
gxaigkauscy ofpasgm ak cabhc +urosmobtoaks #y sthtg hkm jgmgrhc
iavgrkfgkts$ /los fghks tlht hccabhtovg okgjjobogkbogs stgffoki jraf tlos
saurbg bhkkat ghsocy #g rgfgmogm #y fukobophc pacobogs tlgfsgcvgs wotlaut
tlg hssosthkbg aj loilgr togrs aj iavgrkfgkt$
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!#$!C(M$I PG%HP*R
Yg lhvg prgsgktgm h thxakafob vogw aj iavgrkfgkt jhocurg ok cabhc
iavgrkfgkt wlobl mrhws strakicy ak tlg igkgrob typacaiogs wlobl lhvg #ggk
mgvgcapgm #y tlgarosts apgrhtoki ok tlg #rahm pu#cob blaobg trhmotoak$
&argavgr, wg lhvg sauilt ta hriug tlht baigkt rghsaks gxost wlobl suiigst
tlht iavgrkfgkt jhocurg ok igkgrhc, hkm higkby jhocurg ok phrtobuchr, hrg coegcy
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ta #g farg hbutg ok fukobophc iavgrkfgkt tlhk ots bauktgrphrts ht loilgr
togrs ok h jgmgrhcosf$ /los bakbcusoak os ok baktrhst ta vogws aj #atl 2hocgy
(8???! hkm 2aykg (8???! wla sggf ta #gcogvg tlht sokbg oktgr"iavgrkfgkthc
bafpgtotoak os irghtgr ht tlg cabhc iavgrkfgkt cgvgc ot fhy #g cgss susbgpto#cg
ta iavgrkfgkt jhocurg$
%j cabhc iavgrkfgkt jhocurg os okmggm farg prakaukbgm, tlgk wg slaucm
ok*uorg hs ta wlgtlgr ot bhk #g mojjgrgktohtgm ok eokm jraf iavgrkfgkt jhocurg
ht jgmgrhc hkm sthtg cgvgcs7 tlht os, mags ot baksost aj h mojjgrgkt fox aj
hccabhtovg okgjjobogkby, pramubtovg okgjjobogkby hkm mostro#utoakhc okg*uoty$
Yotlaut h mgthocgm gfporobhc gxhfokhtoak aj tlos pra#cgf, ot os mojjobuct ta
spgbuchtg wotl hky mgirgg aj prgbosoak$ 0awgvgr, ot mags sggf coegcy tlht
hccabhtovg okgjjobogkbogs fhy wgcc #g farg gvomgkt sokbg tlg rgchtovgcy sfhcc
sozg aj fukobophc #umigts fhegs trhmg"ajjs #gtwggk hctgrkhtovg #ukmcgs aj
cabhc pu#cob iaams farg hbutg$
%j cabhc iavgrkfgkt os okmggm farg prakg ta iavgrkfgkt jhocurg tlhk sthtg
hkm jgmgrhc iavgrkfgkts, tlgk tlos hcsa rhosgs oktgrgstoki *ugstoaks h#aut tlg
mgsoik aj hppraprohtg iavgrkhkbg fgblhkosfs jar fukobophcotogs$ ar
gxhfpcg, tlg hfhcihfhtoak aj sfhcc cabhc iavgrkfgkt strubturgs okta chrigr
ukots baucm famgrhtg tlg gxtgkt aj cabhc iavgrkfgkt jhocurg$ 'ofochrcy, tlg
bhsg jar bafpgtotovg tgkmgroki hkm .aut"saurboki fhy #g strakigr ht tlg
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@hrr, . 9 hkm +hvos, ). H. (8!, >Hk 6cgfgkthry 7acotobhc hkm
6bakafob %lgary aj tlg 6xpgkmoturgs aj 9abhc
Natgr :laobg*,
Hfgrobhk @glhvoaurhc =bogktost, Nac. 4"(8/!, pp. 8"&4/8.
@rgtak, H. hkm oktra`g, J. (8"4!, %lg 9aiob aj @urghubrhtob
:akmubt, :hf`romig 1kovgrsoty 7rgss, ;gw ar$.
@ublhkhk, . '., %accosak J. +. hkm %uccab$,
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+accgry, @ 6. hkm hccos, . 9. (8!, >'hr$gt hocurg,
6xprgssovg vgrsus
6bakafob Natoki*, ok . '. :rhok hkm J. +. %accosak,
7rgmobtoki 7acotobsO 6sshys ok 6fporobhc 7u`cob :laobg,
1kovgrsoty aj 'obloihk 7rgss, Hkk Hr`ar, pp.4-8&455.
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Lorsblfhk, H. ). (8/!, 6xot, Naobg hkm 9ayhcty, :hf`romig
1kovgrsoty 7rgss, :hf`romig.
Ggrr, J. (8!, %awhrm 'arg 6jjobogkt hkm +gfabrhtob 9abhc
%lg ;gw 6bakafobs aj )rihkoshtoak*,
Hfgrobhk aurkhc aj 7acotobhc =bogkbg, Nac. 4"(5!, pp.-&
.
'ugccgr, +. :. (8"!, 7u`cob :laobg ##, :hf`romig 1kovgrsoty
7rgss, :hf`romig.
;os$hkgk, . H. (88!, @urghubrhby hkm Jgprgsgkthtovg
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)*+awm, '. :. (8"!, >%lg 7ra`cgf aj D+ags gmgrhcosf
7rgsgrvg 'hr$gtsI*, 1kovgrsoty aj Noriokoh 9hw Jgvogw, Nac.
"-(5!, pp.848&84.
Jafgr, %. hkm Jasgktlhc, L. (8"!, >7acotobhc Jgsaurbg
Hccabhtoak, :aktraccgm Higkmhs hkm tlg =thtus Cua*, 7u`cob
:laobg, Nac. --(5!, pp. 4&5-.
Jasg&Hb$grfhk, =. (8!, :arruptoak hkm
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oktra`g, J. (8!, >'amgrk @urghubrhtob %lgary*, ok +. :.
'ugccgr (gm.!, 7grspgbtovgs ak 7u cob :laobg, :hf`romig
1kovgrsoty 7rgss, :hf`romig, pp. 54&55.
artlokitak, H. :. hkm +accgry, @. 6. (8!, >osbhc #ccusoak
hkm tlg Hustrhcohk 9abhc