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Life Span Development
Chapter 10
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Methods in Developmental Psychology
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Cross-Sectional Study Study people of different ages at the
same point in timeAdvantages
InexpensiveCan be completed quicklyLow attrition
DisadvantagesDifferent age groups are not necessarily
much alikeDifferences may be due to cohort
differences rather than age
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Longitudinal Study
Study the same group of people over time
AdvantagesDetailed information about subjectsDevelopmental changes can be studied in
detailEliminates cohort differences
DisadvantagesExpensive and time consumingPotential for high attritionDifferences over time may be due to
assessment tools and not age
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Biographical or Retrospective Study
Participant’s past is reconstructed through interviews and other research about their life
AdvantagesGreat detail about life of individualIn-depth study of one person
DisadvantagesRecall of individual may not be accurateCan be expensive and time consuming
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Prenatal Development
Period of time from conception to birth
EmbryoFrom about two weeks after conception
to three months after conceptionFetus
Three months after conception to birthPlacenta
Connects fetus to motherBrings oxygen and nutrientsTakes away wastes
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Prenatal DevelopmentCritical Period
Time when influences have major effectTerotogens
Substances that can damage an embryo or fetus
Fetal Alcohol SyndromeOccurs in children of women who consume
large amounts of alcohol during pregnancySymptoms include facial deformities, heart
defects, stunted growth, and cognitive impairments
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The Newborn Baby
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ReflexesRooting
Baby turns its head toward something that brushes its cheek and gropes around with mouth
Sucking Newborn’s tendency to suck on objects placed in
the mouthSwallowing
Enables newborn babies to swallow liquids without choking
Grasping Close fist around anything placed in their hand
Stepping Stepping motions made by an infant when held
upright
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Temperament Temperament refers to characteristic
patterns of emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation
Thomas and Chess identified three basic types of babiesEasy
Good-natured, easy to care for, adaptable
DifficultMoody and intense, react to new
situations and people negatively and strongly
Slow-to-warm-upInactive and slow to respond to new
things, and when they do react, it is mild
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Temperament
Kagan has added a fourth typeShy Child
Timid and inhibited, fearful of anything new or strange
Temperament may predict later disposition
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Perceptual AbilitiesVision
Clear for 8-10 inchesGood vision by 6 months
Depth PerceptionVisual cliff research
Other SensesEars are functional prior to birthInfants particularly tune in to human
voicesTaste and smell are fully functional
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Infancy and Childhood
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Physical Development
Children grow about 10 inches and gain about 15 pounds in first year
Growth occurs in spurts, as much as 1 inch overnight
Growth slows during second year
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Motor Development
Developmental NormsAges by which an average child
achieves various developmental milestones
MaturationAutomatic biological unfolding of
development in an organism as a function of passage of time
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensory-Motor Stage (birth to 2 years)Object permanence
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)Egocentric
Concrete Operations (7-11 years)Principles of conservation
Formal Operations (11-15 years)Understand abstract ideas
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Criticisms of Piaget's Theory
Many question assumption that there are distinct stages in cognitive development
Criticism of notion that infants do not understand world
Piaget may have underestimated influence of social interaction in cognitive development
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
DevelopmentPreconventional
(preadolescence)“Good” behavior is mostly to avoid
punishment or seek reward
Conventional (adolescence)Behavior is about pleasing others and, in
later adolescence, becoming a good citizen
PostconventionalEmphasis is on abstract principles such as
justice, equality, and liberty
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Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
Research shows that many people never progress past the conventional level
Theory does not take cultural differences into account
Theory is considered by some to be sexist in that girls often scored lower on tests of morality
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Language Development
BabblingMake the sounds of all languages
HolophrasesOne word is used to mean a whole
sentence
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Theories of Language Development
Skinner theorized that language develops as parents reward children for language usage
Chomsky proposed the language acquisition deviceA neural mechanism for acquiring
language presumed to be “wired into” all humans
Bilingualism and the development of a second language
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Social Development
Parent-Child Relationships in Infancy
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Development of Attachment
ImprintingTendency to follow the first moving thing
seenOccurs in many species of animals
AttachmentHumans form a bond with those who care
for them in infancyBased upon interaction with caregiver
AutonomySense of independence
SocializationProcess by which children learn appropriate
attitudes and behaviors
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Social Development
Parent-Child Relationships in Childhood
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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
Authoritarian Tightly control children’s behavior and
insist on obedienceCan produce children who have poor
communication skills, who are moody, withdrawn, and distrustful
Permissive-indifferentParents have too little control and often
are indifferent and neglectfulChildren tend to become overly dependent
and lack social skills and self-control
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Baumrind’s Parenting StylesPermissive-Indulgent
Parents are very attentive and supportive, but do not set limits on behavior
Children tend to be immature, disrespectful, impulsive, and out of control
Authoritative Parents provide firm structure, but are not
overly controllingParents listen to their children’s opinions
and explain their decisions, bur are still clearly in charge
Children tend to become self-reliant and socially responsible
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Relationships With Other Children
Solitary playChildren first play by themselves
Parallel playAs they get older, children play side-by-
side with other children, but not interacting
Cooperative playBy about 3 or 3½, children begin playing
with others
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Relationships With Other Children
Peer groupA network of same-aged friends and
acquaintances who give one another emotional and social support
When children start school, peers begin to have greater influence
Nonshared environmentUnique aspects of the environment that
are experienced differently by siblings
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Sex-Role Development
Gender identityKnowledge of being a boy or girlOccurs by age 3
Gender constancyChild realizes that gender cannot changeOccurs by age 4 or 5
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Sex-Role Development
Gender-role awarenessKnowing appropriate behavior for each
genderGender stereotypes
Beliefs about presumed characteristics of each gender
Sex-typed behaviorSocially defined ways to behave different for
boys and girlsMay be at least partly biological in origin
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Adolescence
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Physical Changes
Growth spurtBegins about age 10½ in girls and about
12½ in boysSexual development
PubertyOnset of sexual maturation
MenarcheFirst menstrual period for girls
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Physical ChangesEarly and late developersAdolescent sexual activity
Approximately ¾ of males and ½ of females between 15 and 19 have had intercourse
Average age for first intercourse is 16 for boys and 17 for girls
Teenage pregnancyRate of teen pregnancy has fallen in the
last 50 yearsHighest in U.S. of all industrialized nations
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Cognitive Changes
Imaginary audienceAdolescent delusion that everyone else
is always focused on themPersonal fable
Delusion that they are unique and very important
InvulnerabilityNothing can harm them
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Personality and Social Development
Major occurrence in adolescence is identity formation
Forming an identityAchievement
Successfully find identityForeclosure
Settle for identity others wish for themMoratorium
Explore various identitiesDiffusion
Unable to “find themselves”
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Personality and Social Development
Relationships with peersAdolescents often form cliques, or
groups with similar interests and strong mutual attachment
Relationships with parentsAdolescents test and question every rule
and guideline from parents
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Some Problems of Adolescence
Declines in self-esteemRelated to appearanceSatisfaction in appearance is related
to higher self-esteemDepression and suicide
Rate of suicide among adolescents has increased 600% since 1950, but has leveled off in ’90s
Suicide often related to depression, drug abuse, and disruptive behaviors
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Adulthood
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Love, Partnerships, and Parenting
Forming partnershipsFirst major event of adulthood is forming
and maintaining close relationshipsParenthood
Having children alters dynamics of relationships
Marital satisfaction often declines after birth of child
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Marital Satisfaction
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Other Issues
The World of WorkBalancing career and family obligations
is a challengeCognitive Changes
Thinking is more flexible and practicalPersonality Changes
Less self-centered, better coping skillsSome men and women have a midlife
crisis (or midlife transition)The "Change of Life"
Menopause
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Late Adulthood
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Physical Changes
In late adulthood, physical deterioration is inevitable
A person’s response to these changes are important
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Social Development
Independent and satisfying lifestyles
RetirementMost people will stop working and face
challenges with that sudden changeSexual behavior
Research shows that many older couples continue to be sexually active
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Cognitive Changes
Research has demonstrated that those who continue to “exercise” their mental abilities can delay mental decline
Alzheimer’s disease afflicts approximately 10% of people over 65 and perhaps as many as 50% of those over 85
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Facing the End-of-Life
Kubler-Ross’s Stages of Dying
DenialAngerBargainingDepressionAcceptance