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Lexical Semantics
Jean Mark GawronLinguistics
San Diego State [email protected]
http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/∼gawron
San Diego State University, Department of Linguistics
January 26, 2020
Jean Mark Gawron Linguistics San Diego State University [email protected] http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/∼gawron ( SDSU )Lexical Semantics January 26, 2020 1 / 61
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Outline
1 Semantic features
2 Review Questions
3 Summary
4 Kinship Domain
5 Universal grammar
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Semantic features
A lexical set
? ?
? man woman? boy girl
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Contrasting semantic components
A lexical set
Male Female
Adult man womanChild boy girl
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Semantic dimensions/features
A lexical set
Maturity/Gender Male Female
Adult man womanChild boy girl
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Lexical entries
/man/ [Sex male
maturity adult
]/woman/ [
Sex female
maturity adult
]/boy/ [
Sex male
maturity child
]/girl/ [
Sex female
maturity child
]
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[[Man]]: the extension of man
[[Male]][[Adult]] [[Man]]
[[Adult]] = the set of adults[[Male]] = the set of males[[Man]] = the set of men = [[Adult]] ∩ [[Male]] (blue area)
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Like phonology?
There are many sounds in English. Can we decompose meanings intofeatures in the same way we decompose sounds into features in phonology?
From Grady et al. 2010Jean Mark Gawron Linguistics San Diego State University [email protected] http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/∼gawron ( SDSU )Lexical Semantics January 26, 2020 8 / 61
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The building blocks of word meaning
The idea
Just as we have a setof phonologicalfeatures thatcompletely determinethe possible sounds andpossible contrasts of alanguage, so we have aset of semanticfeatures thatcompletely determinethe possible wordmeanings of alanguage.
What features do
1 Account for the ways in whichword meanings are similar(boy,man → [+ Male]).
2 Account for the ways in whichword meanings are different (man[Maturity adult] 6= boy [Maturitychild]).
3 Account for truth conditions (thisis actually the most importantpart).
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Features
A feature carves up some domain into disjoint sets
Sex[[Male]] [[Female]]
Maturity
[[Adult]] [[Child]]
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Man: What its features tell us
[[Male]][[Adult]]
[[Man]] = [[Adult]] ∩ [[Male]] ; therefore[[Man]] ⊂ [[Adult]][[Man]] ⊂ [[Male]]
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Man vs. Boy
[Sex male
][[Male]]
[[man]] [[boy]]
[Maturity adult
]v.[
Maturity child]
[[child]][[adult]]
[[man]] [[boy]]
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Horses: A second domain
/stallion/ = [Sex male
maturity adult
] /mare/ = [Sex female
maturity adult
]/colt/ = [
Sex male
maturity child
] /filly/ = [Sex female
maturity child
]
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Truth-Conditions: Stallion
[[Male]][[Adult]]
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Questions
1 What is the difference between stallion and man?[Sex male
maturity adult
]2 What do we say about horse and foal? (a foal is less than 12 months
old and either male or female); colts and fillies are up to 4 years old).
3
/horse/ = [type equine
] /foal/ = [type equine
maturity nb→chd
]/man/ = [
type human]
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Horses (Revised)
/horse/ = [type equine
] /stallion/ = type equine
Sex male
maturity adult
/mare/ = type equine
Sex female
maturity adult
/foal/ = [
type equine
maturity nb→chd
]
/colt/ = type equine
Sex male
maturity chd→adlt
/filly/ = type equine
Sex female
maturity chd→adlt
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Truth-Conditions: Stallion (Revised)
[[Equine]]
[[Adult]] [[Male]]
[[stallion]] = [[Equine]] ∩ [[Adult]] ∩ [[Male]]
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Truth-conditions and features
A
B
C
[[w]] = A ∩ B ∩ C
Featureextension[[f]]
A set of entities
Wordextension[[w]]
Intersection ofits feature ex-tensions
Truthconditions
Word is a truedescription ofall entities inits extension,and not a truedescription ofany entities notin its extension
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Contrastiveness Principle
Corollary of truth conditions requirement
Two words with distinct extensions must have at least one distinct feature.(stallion vs. man)
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Subset Principle
Another corollary
If a feature f is useful in describing the meaning of a word, w , then
[[w]] ⊂ [[f]]
Equivalently
If[[w]] 6⊂ [[f]]
then the feature f is not useful in describing the meaning of word w .
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Sheep: A new domain
/sheep/ = [type ovine
] /ram/ = type ovine
Sex male
maturity adult
/ewe/ = type ovine
Sex male
maturity adult
/lamb/ = [
type ovine
maturity chd→adlt
]
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Outline
1 Semantic features
2 Review Questions
3 Summary
4 Kinship Domain
5 Universal grammar
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A new semantic field
What are the fea-tures for nerd,dweeb, dork andgeek?
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Other semantic fields
A semantic domain is a lexical set with its own set ofcontrastive features (contrasts).
Possible semantic domains
Color terms
(Kempton ) Ceramics: (olla, jarra, florero, cazuela. [jarra → pitcher;jarro → mug; taza → cup]
(Lehrer 1974) cooking terms: steam, boil1 (poach, stew, braise),boil2, fry (saute, deep-fry), broil (grill, barbecue), roast, bake
kiship terminology
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Horse issues: Contrastiveness
Violation Fixed
/gelding/ type equine
Sex male
maturity adult
type equine
Sex male
maturity adult
castrated yes
/stallion/ type equine
Sex male
maturity adult
type equine
Sex male
maturity adult
castrated no
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Cousin issues: the subset principle
Violation Violation
cousin type human
Sex male
... ...
type human
Sex female
... ...
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Semantic components don’t apply across the board
mare type equine
Sex male
maturity adult
castrated no?
cousin type human
Sex female
... ...
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Outline
1 Semantic features
2 Review Questions
3 Summary
4 Kinship Domain
5 Universal grammar
Jean Mark Gawron Linguistics San Diego State University [email protected] http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/∼gawron ( SDSU )Lexical Semantics January 26, 2020 28 / 61
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Summary: Truth conditions
Featureextension
A set of entities
Wordextension
Intersection of its feature extensions
Truthconditions
Word is a true description of all entities in itsextension, and not a true description of any en-tities not in its extension
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Summary
What features do1 Account for the ways in
which word extensionsare similar.([[boy]],[[man]] ⊂ [[Male]]).
2 Account for the ways inwhich word extensionsare disjoint ([[man]] isdisjoint from [[boy]]because [[adult]] isdisjoint from[[chd→adlt]]).
[[Male]]
[[man]] [[boy]]
[[chd→adlt]][[adult]]
[[man]] [[boy]]
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Summary: contrastiveness and subset
1 Two words with distinct extensions must have distinct features.
2 Contrastiveness principle: When two words end up with the samefeatures yet have different extensions, you need a new feature.(stallion vs. man, stallion vs gelding)
3 Subset principle: When no word extensions in a given domain fallinside (⊂) a feature’s extension, the feature is useless in that domain(the feature Sex (Male, Female) is useless for the word cousinbecause the set of cousins is not a subset of either the set Male oirthe set Female.
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Outline
1 Semantic features
2 Review Questions
3 Summary
4 Kinship Domain
5 Universal grammar
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Basic concepts
Kinship terms are words used to designate members of one’sclose family.
Ego The person whose relatives are being identified,the referent of my in my father
Alter The relative being identified, the referent of fa-ther in my father
Kinship type The sequence of links between ego and alter.For example, we discover upon questioning ourinformant Joe that a relative referred to as Joe’sgreat uncle is actually Joe’s FFB (Joe’s Father’sFather’s Brother) while another referred to asJoe’s cousin once removed is Joe’s FFsds.
Consanguineal relations share a common ancestor with ego.Affine relations are socially defined (wife, husband).
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Descriptive tools for kinship terms
Kinship types: will be defined using . . .
Kinship links: mother (M), father (F), sister (S), brother (B), son (s),daughter (d), wife (w), husband (h). Kinship types designated by asequence of links from the ”Ego” (self) on outwards.
Kinship Type Description English Term
MSd mother’s sister’sdaughter
Cousin
MBd mother’s brother’sdaughter
Cousin
MFSd mother’s father’ssister’s daughter
Mother’s cousin, cousinonce removed
B brother Brother
Other kinship types in the extension of cousin: MSs, MBs, FSd, ...
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Basic English kinship
Kin Terms Kin Types (affine in red)
brother Bsister Smother Mfather Funcle FB, FSh, MB, MShaunt FS, FBw, MS, MBwgrandfather FF, MFgreat-grandfather FFF, FMF, MFF, MMF(first) cousin MSs, MSd, MBs, MBd, FSs, FSd, FBs, FBd
Basic Kinship Terms: one word for consanguineal relations, commonlyused, not the hyponym of another kinship term. Excluded: second cousin,cousin once removed, relative, sybling, parent. What about child? Whatabout grandchild?
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Kinship features: first pass
1 Mother and father are both parents, female and male respectively.
2 Parents, grandparents, great grandparents, etc. are ancestors invarious generations.
So we have three potential conceptual features:
parent, sex , ancestor, gen
But the second observation suggests parent should be decomposed into
parent =[ancestor yes
gen -1
]
Now this means grandparent would be:
grandparent =[ancestor yes
gen -2
]
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Redundant features
There’s something a little funny about combining an ancestor featureand a generation feature, because after all, being an ancestor meansbeing some member of a generation less than 0. This concept isredundant with gen ; they overlap in content; and the basic conceptsof our analysis should NOT be redundant with each other.
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An improvement
One feature lin (for lineage) with two different values: direct andcollat (Kroeber 1909)
direct Those related to ego by direct lin-eage either have ego as an ancestor(sons, daughters, grandchildren) or areancestors of ego (parents, grandparents,greatgrandparents) or share ALL theirancestors with ego (syblings)
collat Those related to ego by collat lin-eage are not related by direct lineageand yet share some subset of their an-cestors with ego (cousins, aunts, uncles,great aunts, great uncles, and so on).
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Lineage and Gen features
Direct lineage relatives (red)
Gen-2
Gen-1 Gen-1 Gen-1
Gen0 Gen0 Gen0 Gen0 ego Gen0 Gen0 Gen0 Gen0
Gen1 Gen1 Gen1
Gen2 Gen2 Gen2
Are these two features sufficient to complete the description of BasicEnglish Kinship terms?
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Direct Lineage kinship types
Direct lineage relatives (red)
Gen-2
FF,MF,FM,MM
Gen-1Gen-1
F,MGen-1
Gen0 Gen0 Gen0Gen0
B egoGen0
SGen0 Gen0 Gen0
Gen1
s
Gen1
d
Gen2
ssGen2
sdGen2
dsGen2
dd
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Choosing specific values for lin and gen
Gen-2
FF,MF,FM,MM
Gen-1Gen-1
F,MGen-1
Gen0 Gen0 Gen0Gen0
B egoGen0
SGen0 Gen0 Gen0
Gen1
s
Gen1
d
Gen2
ssGen2
sdGen2
dsGen2
dd
gen 2, lin direct kinship types
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Applying the contrastiveness principle
Gen-2
FF,MF,FM,MM
Gen-1Gen-1
F,MGen-1
Gen0 Gen0 Gen0Gen0
B egoGen0
SGen0 Gen0 Gen0
Gen1
s
Gen1
d
Gen2
ssgrandson
Gen2
sdgranddaughter
Gen2
dsgrandson
Gen2
ddgranddaughter
gen 2, lin direct English kinship terms
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English kinship analysis
This gives us the following analysis of basic English kinship terms, basedon only 3 features, lin , gen , and sex .
mother lin direct
sex female
gen -1
father lin direct
sex male
gen -1
aunt lin collat
sex female
gen -1
uncle lin collat
sex male
gen -1
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English kinship analysis, ctd.
sister lin direct
sex female
gen 0
brother lin direct
sex male
gen 0
cousin lin collat
sex
gen 0
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English kinship analysis, ctd.
granddaughter lin direct
sex female
gen 2
grandson lin direct
sex male
gen 2
grandmother lin direct
sex female
gen -2
grandfather lin direct
sex male
gen -2
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Observation: [[genn]] an infinite set
Horizontal links (B,S). Links up (F,M). Links down (s,d)
Type up dn Gen dir? Type up dn Gen dir?
B,S 0 0 gen0 Yes s, d 0 1 gen1 YesFBs,FSs 1 1 gen0 No FBsd,FSss 1 2 gen1 NoFFBss 2 2 gen0 No FFBssd 2 3 gen1 NoFFFBsss 3 3 gen0 No FFFBssss 3 4 gen1 No. . . . . .
F, M 1 0 gen−1 YesFFBs,FSs 2 1 gen−1 NoMFFBss 2 2 gen−1 NoMFFFBsss 3 3 gen−1 No. . .
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This slide blank
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Proto-Polynesian Kinship terms
Hage (1999): 4 terms covering brother and sister, not two. A brother canbe described by one of three words, a sister by one of three words.
*tuaga’ne Bfor female ego
*tuafafine Sfor male ego
*tuakana Bwhen older than male egoSwhen older than female ego
*tahina Bwhen younger than male egoSwhen younger than female ego
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Polynesian kinship analysis: Problematic analysis
tuaga’ne lin direct
sex male
gen 0
tuafafine lin direct
sex female
gen 0
tuakana lin direct
sex ?
gen 0
tahina lin direct
sex ?
gen 0
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Polynesian Kinship terms: Stage II
*tuaga’ne Bfor female ego
*tuafafine Sfor male ego
*tahina Bfor male egoSfor female ego
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Polynesian Kinship terms: Stage III
*tuaga’ne Bfor female egoSfor male ego
*tahina Bfor male egoSfor female ego
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Outline
1 Semantic features
2 Review Questions
3 Summary
4 Kinship Domain
5 Universal grammar
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Universal grammar
1 a set of principles, a universal template, that transcends thepeculiarities of any individual language
2 Chomskyan hypothesis
3 A much older idea (as Chomsky himself has emphasized) going backat least to thinkers like Humboldt and perhaps Descartes
4 Perhaps even older, extending back to a more Medieval concept ofgrammar which viewed logic as a kind of universal grammar.
Leibniz’s idea of a characteristica universalis or ideal lan-guage, which would make truth and inference crystalclear because of its formal properties.
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Bierwisch’s hypothesis
Universality of semantic features
Semantic features do not differ from language to language, but are ratherpart of the general human capacity for language, forming a universalinventory used in particular ways in individual languages.
Bierwisch (1967) [in Bierwisch 1970]
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Potential sources of universals
1 Logical concepts: and, or, not, if-then, all, some
2 Spatial relations: in, on, at, under/over, behind/in-front-of, go
3 Kinship terms: father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife
4 Bodypart language: head, arm, leg, hand
5 become, cause
6 Complex concepts decompose into simpler ones:
kill = cause (become (not (alive)))
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Kinship universals
Greenberg (1966), Murdock (1970)Of 15 possible systems for referring to grandparents, only 4 are commonlyfound:
1 A single term for all grandparents, regardless of sex or lineage;
2 Two terms, one for the maternal grandparents and one for thepaternal grandparents, regardless of sex;
3 Four terms, one for paternal male, paternal female, maternal male,and maternal female;
4 Two terms, one for the male grandparents and one for the femalegrandparents (Murdock 1970); Greenberg’s original study turned upfew of these, but in fact, they’re common.
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Greenberg’s 15 possible systems
There are 4 grandparents to cover:
FF, FM, MF, MM
A word might cover any nonempty subset of these, yielding 15possibilities.
Thus it’s significant that only 4 systems are commonly found. Forexample, a two-term system with one word for FF, and another for FM,MF, and MM is rare or nonexistent (I don’t know which).
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Features based on Greenberg’s 2-term systems
The subset principle makes it look as though the right universal featuresfor accounting for grandparents are sex (rows) and side (columns):
Paternal Maternal
Male FF MFFemale FM MM
What would a 2-term system that didn’t use either of these features looklike?
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Lexical entries for 2-term Greenberg systems
Type Term 1 Term 2
Paternal/maternallin direct
gen -2
side paternal
lin direct
gen -2
side maternal
FF, FM MF, MM
male/femalelin direct
gen -2
sex male
lin direct
gen -2
sex female
FF, MF FM, MM
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A language with different grandparent features
Consider the grandparent terms of the Australian language Mari’ngar(Scheffler 1978)
tyan’angga FF, MMtamie MF, FM
For example, [[tyan’angga]] (in red) isn’t a subset of any of the following:[[male]], [[female]], [[maternal]], or [[paternal]]:
Paternal Maternal
Male FF MFFemale FM MM
Thus the features suggested by Greenberg’s study might be the commonones, or the unmarked ones, but they’re not universal.
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Conclusion
We found little evidence for some kind of strong universality of semanticfeatures in the grandparent example. There are three possible ways ofdividing 4 grandparents into two sets which both contain 2 grandparents.All three are attested!
Seneca kinship terms homework
In our next homework assignment, we investigate the universality ofkinship term features by looking at a kinship system quite different fromthat of English, Seneca.
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Bierwisch, M. 1967.Some semantic universals of german adjectivals.Foundations of language 3(1):1–36.
Bierwisch, M. 1970.Progress in linguistics: a collection of papers.de Gruyter.
Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966.Universals of language.MIT press.
Hage, Per. 1999.Marking universals and the structure and evolution of kinshipterminologies: Evidence from salish.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 423–441.
Kempton, William. n.d.The folk classification of ceramics.New York: Academic Press.
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Kroeber, A.L. 1909.Classificatory systems of relationship.The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britainand Ireland 39:77–84.
Lehrer, Adrienne. 1974.Semantic fields and lexical structure.Amsterdam: North Holland.
Murdock, George Peter. 1970.Kin term patterns and their distribution.Ethnology 9(2):165–208.
Scheffler, Harold W. 1978.Australian kin classification.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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