College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education 2017/2018 – 2018/2019 ACADEMIC YEAR
LECTURER: DR. INUSAH ABDUL-NASIRU DEPARTMENT: PSYCHOLOGY
(Contact Information: [email protected])
Course Information
Provide the following information:
Course Code: PSYC 456
Course Title: Organisational Psychology
Course Credit
3
Session Number & Session Title:
Session 3: Employee Motivation Theories
Semester/Year: 2nd Semester / 2018 Slide 2
Course Information (contd.)
Slide 3
Provide the following information:
Lecture Period(s)
Insert Lecture Period(s): (Online how many online interactions per week)
Prerequisites
Course Prerequisites: Introduction to Psychology; Experimental Psychology
Course Instructor’s Contact
Provide the following information:
Course Instructor Name
Dr. Inusah Abdul-Nasiru
Office Location Department of Psychology, Office Number 1
Office Hours
Thursdays 9.00am to 1.00pm
Phone Phone Number: 0244220529
E-mail Your Email: [email protected] Slide 4
Introduction/Subject or Session Overview
• Industrial Psychologists are interested in employees’ work performance and organizational productivity.
• Motivation is an area of study in organizational psychology concerned with what gets employees to initiate behaviour and direct these behaviours toward achieving acceptable goas.
• This session introduces students to theories of motivation and the relevant concepts in this area.
Slide 5
Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
1. Theories of Motivation: Content Theories
2. Theories of Motivation: Process Theories
Slide 6
Session Learning Goals
This session will highlight the need for students to understand the basis of certain behaviours, drawing on the relevant theories and concepts that explain why employees will initiate and direct behaviour towards achieving organisational goal.
Slide 7
Session Learning Objectives
• By the end of this session, it is expected that students will be able to:
– Explain how motivation theories differ from each other
Slide 8
Session Learning Outcomes
• It is expected that students will be able to explain the various motivation theories
• And provide similarities and differences in these theories
Slide 9
Session Activities and Assignments
This week, complete the following tasks: • Log onto the UG Sakai LMS course site:
– http://sakai.ug.edu.gh/XXXXXXXXX
• Read Chapter 9 of Recommended Text – E.g. Aamodt M. G. (2016)
• Watch the Videos for Session – e.g. Employee Motivation Theories and Concepts
• Review Lecture Slides: Session – e.g. Employee Motivation Theories and Concepts
• Visit the Chat Room and discuss the Forum question for Session
• Complete the Individual Assignment for Session
Slide 10
Reading List
• Required Text
– Aamodt, M. G. (2016). Industrial and Organisational Psychology: An Applied Approach. 8th Edition. Boston: Cengage Learning
– Levy, P. E. (2013). Industrial/Organizational Psychology: Understanding the workplace (4th Edition). New York: Worth Publishers.
• Supplemental Texts – McKenna, E. (2012). Business psychology and organisational
behaviour. (5th Ed) New York: Psychology Press.
Slide 11
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: CONTENT THEORIES
Topic One
Slide 12
Theories of Motivation
Why should managers have an understanding of the various theories?
1. Motivation is a complex concept, and no one theory is wholly acceptable, in explaining the nature of motivation.
2. All the theories available only help to explain the behaviour of certain people at certain times.
Slide 13
Theories of Motivation
• There are several motivation theories, and each is conventionally grouped under either:
1. Content (Need) Theories
– focus on factors within the individual, that energise,
direct and sustain or stop behaviour.
2. Process (Cognitive) Theories
– They provide description and analysis of how behaviour is initiated, energised, directed, sustained and/or stopped.
Slide 14
Content (Need ) Theories
• Content theories of motivation focus on factors
within the individual, that energise, direct and
sustain or stop behaviour.
– They analyse particular needs, motives or rewards. i.e.,
what factors within the individual, energise, direct sustain
or stop behaviour?
Slide 15
Content (Need ) Theories
• E.g.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy (ERG:
Existence, Relatedness and Growth)
• Herzberg’s two-factor theory
• McClelland’s Achievement Motivation theory
Slide 16
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory • Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory states
that people have a pyramid hierarchy of needs that they will satisfy from bottom to top.
• Important to the hierarchy of needs theory is that
– Maslow felt that unfulfilled needs lower on the ladder would inhibit the person from climbing to the next step.
Slide 17
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
• Maslow’s basic proposition is that
– people always want more, and what
they want depends on what they already
have.
• Maslow argues that human motives or needs follow a hierarchy, involving five levels:
Slide 18
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Slide 19
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
• 1. The physiological needs. – These include the needs we have for oxygen, water,
protein, salt, sugar, calcium, and other minerals and
vitamins.
• They also include the need to be active, to
rest, to sleep, to get rid of wastes (sweat,
urine, and faecal matter), to avoid pain, etc.
Slide 20
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory • 2. The safety and security needs.
– After the physiological needs are taken care of, one
becomes increasingly interested in finding safe
circumstances, stability, and protection.
– a home in a safe neighbourhood,
– a little job security and
– a good retirement plan and
– a bit of insurance,
– etc
Slide 21
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory • 3. The love and belonging needs.
• With this, one begins to feel the need for friends, a
sweetheart, children, affectionate relationships in
general, even a sense of community.
• People may exhibit these needs in their desires to
– marry, have a family, be a part of a community, a member
of a church, a brother in the fraternity, a part of a gang or a
bowling club.
Slide 22
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory • 4. The esteem needs.
• The need for the respect of others, the need for
status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation,
appreciation, dignity, even dominance.
– feelings as confidence, competence, independence,
and freedom.
Slide 23
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory • 5. Self-actualization
• Maslow has used a variety of terms to refer to this level: – He has called it growth motivation (in contrast to deficit
motivation), being needs (or B-needs), and self-actualization.
• They involve the continuous desire to fulfill potentials, to “be all that you can be.” – becoming the most complete, the fullest, “you” -- hence
the term, self-actualization.
Slide 24
The point……
• Now, in keeping with his theory up to this point, if you want to be truly self-actualizing, you need to have your lower needs taken care of, at least to a considerable extent. – If you are hungry, you are scrambling to get food;
– If you are unsafe, you have to be continuously on guard;
– If you are isolated and unloved, you have to satisfy that need;
– If you have a low sense of self-esteem, you have to be defensive or compensate.
– When lower needs are unmet, you can’t fully devote yourself to fulfilling your potentials.
Slide 25
Equivalent items in Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy for organisations
Physiological
• General :Food, water, sex. sleep
• Organisational:
– Pay
– Pleasant working conditions
– Cafeteria
Slide 26
Equivalent items in Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy
Safety/Security
• General: Safety, security, stability, protection
• Organisational:
– Safe working conditions
– Company benefits
– Job security
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Equivalent items in Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy
Belongingness
• General: Love, affection, belongingness
• Organisational
– Cohesive work group
– Friendly supervision
– Professional association
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Equivalent items in Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy
Esteem
• General: Self-esteem, self-respect, prestige, status
• Organisational: – Social recognition
– Job title
– High status job
– Feedback from the job itself
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Equivalent items in Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy
Self-Actualisation
• General: Growth, advancement, creativity
• Organisational: – Challenging job
– Opportunities for creativity
– Achievement in work
– Advancement in the organisation
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Evaluation of Maslow’s Theory
• Motivation/Job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved
performance
• People may be in the same hierarchy, but may have different
motivating factors
• Several studies failed to validate the conception of 5-step
hierarchy.
• People place different emphasis on different things at different
times.
• Eg: Maslow himself realized that:
– More than one need determine behavior
– Some needs may disappear; and some behaviors are not
determined by needs
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Job Characteristics Model
• The assumption is that if applied psychologists could understand what was intrinsically motivating about jobs, then they will be in position to redesign
• Jobs so that employees can be motivated and satisfied as they perform.
• For example – When people get the opportunity to do a meaningful job,
they become motivated and satisfied.
• So, the challenge is how to make a job meaningful!
Slide 32
Job Characteristics Model
Job Characteristics Model
– The job characteristics model, designed by Hackman and Oldham, is based on the idea that
• the task itself is key to employee motivation.
–Specifically, a boring and monotonous job stifles motivation to perform well, whereas a challenging job enhances motivation.
Slide 33
Job Design
Slide 34
• Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics theory proposes that – high motivation is related to experiencing three psychological
states whilst working:
1. Meaningfulness of work That labour has meaning to employees, something that they can relate to.
• This is fundamental to intrinsic motivation, i.e. that work is motivating in an of itself (as opposed to motivating only as a means to an end).
Slide 35
2. Responsibility
• That each employee has been given the opportunity to be a success or failure at their job
– because sufficient freedom of action has given them.
• This would include the ability to make changes and incorporate the learning they gain whilst doing the job.
Slide 36
3. Knowledge of outcomes
• Two reasons explain this:
– This is important for two reasons:
• Firstly: to provide the person with knowledge on how successful their work has been, which in turn enables them to learn from mistakes.
• Secondly: to connect them emotionally to the customer of their outputs, thus giving further purpose to the work
– (e.g. I may only work on a production line, but I know that the food rations I produce are used to help people in disaster areas, saving many lives).
Slide 37
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: PROCESS THEORIES
Topic Two
Slide 38
Process (Cognitive ) Theories
• They provide description and analysis of how
behaviour is initiated, energised, directed, sustained
and/or stopped.
– They concentrate on psychological and behavioral
processes in motivation.
• E.g
– Equity theory (Adams )
– Expectancy Theories (Vroom, and Porter & Lawler)
– Operant Conditioning
– Goal-setting Theory (Locke)
Slide 39
Equity Theory
• (This is an example of both content and process theory)
• Developed by Adams (1963, 1965).
• It is about
– A motive for equity in organizations.
– A motive for competiveness in the industry
• It is based on the observation that people want to feel equitably compensated in their work (people have need for sense of equity), so:
– If person ‘A’ senses that s/he receives inequitable treatment compared with ‘B’, s/he (A) takes steps to reduce the inequity.
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Equity Theory
• Two main assumptions:
– The need for cognitive balance consistency—i.e., our need to feel that our beliefs and attitudes are consistent with each other and not conflicting
– Social comparison process—i.e., the tendency to assess ourselves and our status by comparing ourselves to significant others (whom we accept as referents).
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Key elements for comparison
• Inputs: efforts, experience, credentials, longevity, successful accomplishment
• Outcomes: returns or compensation such as pay, benefits, enjoyment, etc.
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
How it works!!
• Upon comparison, where one observes inequity, in the form of:
• Under compensation: This occurs where the other person is getting more rewards for the same contribution
• Overcompensation: where the other person receives the same or less rewards but makes better contribution.
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Expectancy Theory
• The theory has it that: – an individual will be more strongly motivated to
engage in a behavior as he or she perceives stronger probabilities ("expectancies") that the behavior will lead to valued outcomes and avoid bad outcomes”.
• It’s based on the observation that – humans seek to do what has the greater
likelihood of yielding desirable outcome, and to minimize bad results
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Eg
• E.g., “if a behavior is very likely to lead to some very
desirable results (more pay, more interesting work),
but also very likely to lead to some undesirable
results (more overtime work, more stress), one's
motivation to engage in the behaviour will depend
on just how desirable or undesirable one considers
the results and on one's sense of the likelihood of
each result”.
– A matter of choice between the two outcomes
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Evaluation
• Criticism: Difficulty in application and validation.
– The theory assumes that people work out mathematics in
their head, and think rationally before behavior. TOO
MATHEMATICAL
• Contribution: Helped in leadership theories, eg path-
goal theory
– It can be helpful in analyzing practical motivational issues
in organizations
• NOTE: This still receives attention as one of the best
motivation theories (Pinder, 1984).
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Goal Setting Theory
• Locke (1996). The theory holds the view that: – difficult, specific goals lead to higher performance
than easy and/or vague goals or no goals.
• How? – where one has a difficult goal, it enhances
performance by directing attention and action and also gets the individual to mobilize effort, increasing persistence;
– this eventually motivates them to search for effective performance strategies.
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology
Goal Setting Theory and Motivation
PSYC 456: Organisational Psychology