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Learning
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• A process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience
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conditioning
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• The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses
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Classical conditioning
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the basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response–producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response; also called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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• The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
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• The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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• A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response
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Conditioned response (CR)
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• The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus
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Stimulus generalization
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• The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus, but to other, similar stimuli as well
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Stimulus discrimination
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• The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus, but not to other, similar stimuli
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Extinction (in classical conditioning)
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• The gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
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Spontaneous recovery
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• The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus
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Behaviorism
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• School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the scientific study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning
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Placebo response
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• An individual’s psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug; also called placebo effect
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Conditioned compensatory response (CCR)
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• A classically conditioned response in which stimuli that reliably precede the administration of a drug elicit a physiological reaction that counteracts, or is opposite to, the drug’s effect
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Taste aversion
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• A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food
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Biological preparedness
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• In learning theory, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses
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Law effect
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• Learning principle proposed by Thorndike that responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation, while responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation
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Operant
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• Skinner’s term for an actively emitted (or voluntary) behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences
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Operant conditioning
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• The basic learning process that involves changing the probability of a response being repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response; also called Skinnerian conditioning
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Reinforcement
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• The occurrence of a stimulus or event following a response that increases the likelihood of that response being repeated
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Positive reinforcement
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• A situation in which a response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations
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Negative reinforcement
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• A situation in which a response results in the removal, avoidance, or escape from an aversive stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations
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Primary reinforcer
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• A stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species,
such as food, water, or other biological necessities
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Punishment by removal
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• A situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus; also called negative punishment
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Discriminative stimulus
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• A specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular response is more likely to be reinforced, and in the absence of which a particular response is not reinforced
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Operant chamber or Skinner box
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• The experimental apparatus invented by B.F. Skinner to study the relationship between environmental events and active behaviors
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Shaping
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• The operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed
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Continuous reinforcement
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• A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced
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Partial reinforcement
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• A situation in which the occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer
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Extinction (in operant conditioning)
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• The gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer
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partial reinforcement effect
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• The phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement
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Schedule of reinforcement
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• The delivery of a reinforcer according to a preset pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses
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Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
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• A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred
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Variable-ratio (VR) schedule
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• A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial
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Fixed-interval (RI) schedule
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• A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
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Variable-interval (VR) schedule
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• A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trail
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Behavior modification
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• The application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors
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Cognitive map
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• Tolman’s term that describes the mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment
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Latent learning
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• Term coined by Tolman to describe learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available
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Learned helplessness
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• A phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior
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Instinctive drift
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• The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that can interfere with the performance of an operantly conditioned response
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Observational learning
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• Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others
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Albert Bandara (b. 1925)
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American psychologist who experimentally investigated observational learning, emphasizing the role of cognitive factors
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John Garcia (b. 1917)
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American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the learning of taste aversions in animals, a finding that challenged several basic assumptions of classical conditioning
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Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
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Russian physiologist who first described the basic learning process of associating stimuli that is now called classical conditioning
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Robert A. Rescorla (b. 1940)
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American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
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Shepard Siegel (b. 1940)
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Canadian psychologist who has extensively studied the role of classical conditioning and conditioned compensatory responses in the development of drug tolerance, drug withdrawal symptoms, and drug relapse
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B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
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American psychologist who developed the operant conditioning model of learning; emphasized studying the relationship between environmental factors and observable actions; not mental processes, in trying to achieve a scientific explanation
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Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
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American psychologist who was the first to experimentally study animal behavior and document how active behaviors are influenced by their consequences; postulated the law of effect
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Edward C. Tolman (1898-1956)
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American psychologist who used the terms cognitive map and latent learning to describe experimental findings that strongly suggested the cognitive factors play a role in animal learning
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John B. Watson (1878-1958)
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American psychologist who, in the early 1900s, founded behaviorism, an approach that emphasized the scientific study of outwardly observable behavior rather than subjective mental states