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Language and Literature Research
Demonstrate knowledge of the approaches and concepts in language and literature researchIdentify the appropriate research method/s, tools and statistical treatment to apply in research related situation
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DEFINITION
Utilization of various methods to gather truthful and accurate information about problems and issues related to language and literatureCarrying out specific method or analysisSystematic, objective and literature-based analysis of scientifically recorded data
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Types of Research
Quantitative ResearchQualitative ResearchAction Research
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A.Quantitative
Research
Centered on the objective investigationUses numerical data Done in contrived settingUses deductive method
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B. Qualitative Research
Assumes that social reality is continuously constructed in local situationsMakes a holistic observationUses analytic inductionUses inductive method
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C. Action Research
Classified under the general typeCo-equal with both qualitative and quantitative research
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Parts of a
Research Report
The Problem And Its SettingReview Of Literature And Studies Research MethodologyResearch FindingsDiscussionSummary And Recommendations
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Sources of
Research Problem
Research LiteratureTheory – Based ResearchReplicating And Extending Previous ResearchObservations Experience
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Characteristics of a Good
Research Topic
InterestingResearchableSignificantManageable
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Variables and Hypothesis
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Variables
Varies in quantity or qualityIndependent
Treatment Organic
DependentIntervening Confounding
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Hypothesis
Prediction of the tentative results and findings of a study
Null Non directionalDirectional
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Hypothesis
Type I error – rejection when in fact it is trueType II error – non rejection when in fact it is falseAlphabeta
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Quantitative Research Method
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1. Descriptiv
e or Survey
Research
Making careful descriptions of phenomenon in language and literaturePropose description for policy formulationHelps in improving existing conditions
Longitudinal studyTrend studiesCohort studiesPanel studiesCross-sectional studies
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Instruments in Descriptive Research
Questionnaire Types of question: close and open ended
Kind of questionnaire: postal and e-questionnaire
Interview Face to face interviewTelephone interview
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2. Correlational
Research
Seeks to discover the direction and magnitude of the relationship of a variableScatter gram or scatter plot – pictorial representation of the correlation
PerfectPositiveNegativeAbsence of correlation
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3. Casual-comparative or
Ex Facto Research
Determines the cause or reason for existing differences in the behavior or status of groups
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4. Experimental
Research
Provides a systematic and logical method for answering the question on what will happen if experiments are done in careful controlled condition.
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Types Of Experimental Design
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a. Pre Experiment
Lacks control groupFails to provide for the equivalence of a control group One shot case study design
One group, retest posttest design
Static group comparison design
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b. Quasi - Experiment
Provide control of when and to whom the measurement is appliedTime series designPretest – posttest nonequivalent-groups design
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c. True - Experimental
Subjects are randomly designed to treatment groups
Posttest only control groupPretest posttest control group
Solomon four-group
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Test in an Experimental
Research
Pre-test: a measure that is administered prior to an experimental treatment or other interventionPosttest – a measure that is administered following an experiment or control treatment or other intervention in order to determine the effect of the intervention
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Groupings in an Experimental
Research
Control – a group of research participants who receive no treatment or an alternate treatment so that the effect of extraneous variables can be determinedExperimental – a group of research participants who receive treatment
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Focus of Experimental
Research
Manipulation of circumstancesIdentification of casual factorsObservation and measurement
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Pearson r – correlates to variableKendall’ w – how consistent group of judges are when giving a rateStandard deviation – shows the divergence of data to the meanVariance – the square of the SD
- measure of dispersion
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Qualitative Research Method
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1. Action Research
Conducted primarily to improve educational practices, including management of the classroom, classroom practices and interaction, classroom instruction, among others
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Steps in Action
Research
InitiationPreliminary investigationHypothesisInterventionEvaluationDisseminationFollow up
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Data Collection
Approaches
Teacher self-reflection toolMedia recording and analysisStudent feedback toolsStudent performance dataExternal or peer observationJournalingCollegial dialogue, experience sharing and joint problem solving
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2. Case Study
Research
An in-depth study of cases which include an individual, a group and a community
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3. HistoricalResearch
Study of phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better understanding
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Types of Sources
Primary sources Secondary sources
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Categories of Sources
DocumentsNumerical recordsOral statementsRelics
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4. Ethnographic
Research
Study of the features of life in a given culture and the pattern in those featuresCharacteristics:ContextualUnobtrusiveLongitudinalCollaborativeOrganic
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Types of Research
Participant
Participant-observer roleObserver-participant roleComplete observerComplete participant
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Types of Effects on
ParticipantsHawthorne’s EffectHalo EffectObserver Effect
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Hawthorne's effect – when they know they are being observed they change their behaviorPost Hoc Fallacy – just because two things are related it does not mean they can affect each other
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Sampling and Sampling Technique
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Sampling Process of selecting members of a research sample from a defined population
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SamplingError
The deviation of a sample statistics from its population value
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Types of Sampling Technique
Convenience ProbabilityPurposefulClusterCriterionProportional stratified randomPurposeful random Random sampleSnowball sampleSystematicPurposiveQuota
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Way of Measurement
Likert scaleQuestionnaireRubric
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Statistics and
Statistical Treatment
Statistics – numerical index describing a characteristic of a sampleStatistical treatment – a mathematical treatment used for summarizing or analyzing numerical data
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Statistical Treatment
ANOVA – to determine whether the difference between the mean scores of two or more groups on a dependent variable is statistically significant
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Statistical Treatment
Chi – square – a nonparametric test of statistical significance that is used when the research data are in the form of frequency counts for two or more categories
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Statistical Treatment
Factor Analysis – a statistical procedure for reducing a set of measured variables to a smaller number of variables by combining variables
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Statistical Treatment
Multiple Regression – for determining the magnitude of the relationship between a criterion variable and a combination of two or more prediction variables
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Ways of Analyzing Qualitative
Data
Conversational AnalysisDiscourse Analysis
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ValidityThe research measures what it intends to investigateConstructContentInternal
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ReliabilityExtent to which other researchers would arrive at similar results Inter-observerIntra-observer
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Data Collection
in Qualitative Research
Observation Field notesField jottingField diaryField log
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Kinds of Material for Field Notes
Descriptive field notesPortraits of the subjectReconstruction of dialogue
Description of the physical setting
Accounts of particular events
Depiction of activitiesObserver’s behavior
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Kinds of Material for Field Notes
Reflective Field NotesReflections on analysisReflections on methodReflections on the observer’s frame of mindPoints of clarification
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Interview
Background or demographic questionsKnowledge questionExperience or behavior questionsOpinion or values questionFeelings questionSensory questions
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Introspective Methods
Data collection is carried out with the mental events being investigated
Think aloud techniquesAnagram tasksDiary studiesStimulated recall
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Retrospection Collection of data some time after the event under investigation has taken place
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Elicitation Techniques
Used to obtain data by means of a stimulus as well as those based on a questionnaire, survey and interview data