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Demonstrated Treatment
Technologies
Stewart Abrams, PE
Langan Engineering and Environmental Services, Inc.
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Learning Objectives
What we will learn:
What technologies are commercial and available now for the treatment of PFAS in both soil and water?
What developing technologies exist that may be available in the future?
What are the key features of each technology?
What are the advantages/disadvantages and limitations of each technology?
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PFAS Treatment Technologies
ITRC Defined Three Categories:
Field Implemented Technologies – Technologies that have been demonstrated under full-scale conditions at multiple sites, by multiple practitioners and multiple applications are well documented in peer-reviewed literature
Limited Application Technologies – Technologies that have been implemented on a limited number of sites, by a limited number of practitioners, and may not have been documented in peer-reviewed literature.
Developing Technologies – Technologies that have been researched at the laboratory or bench scale, but these technologies have not been field demonstrated.
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Water Treatment Effective conventional approaches, with limitations:
Carbon adsorption
Resin adsorption
Reverse osmosis
Typically ineffective conventional technologies: Air stripping, air sparging
Technologies in development: Examples include - bioremediation, chemical oxidation, chemical
reduction, thermal desorption, electrochemical, others
Be aware of precursor transformations via treatment
processes, particularly with oxidation and biodegradation
Treatment objectives can drive the decision making
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Activated Carbon Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
most widely used technology.
GAC performance varies based on site-specific conditions, carbon source types and manufacturing methods.
Shorter-chain PFAS break through faster than longer chain, but generally still within the range considered feasible.
GAC less effective for PFCAs than PFSAs of same C-F chain length.
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Photo used with permission: Calgon Carbon Corporation, 2018
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Typical GAC Process Diagram
Influent GAC vessel “Lead”
Second GAC vessel “Lag”
Monitoring Influent
Mid-point
Effluent
Carbon Change Out Lead to reactivation
Lag to lead
New to lag
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EBCT – Empty bed contact time
Diagram used with permission: Calgon Carbon Corporation, 2018
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Reactivated Carbon
GAC can be “reactivated” under high temperature and reused.
Less aggressive “regeneration” methods are not appropriate for PFAS.
Contract reactivation services provided by most GAC suppliers (e.g., round trip service).
Reactivated carbon typically used in wastewater and groundwater remediation applications.
For drinking water applications, reactivated carbon should be used with caution to avoid commingling with carbon from other sources. Must comply with AWWA B605-13 Reactivation of Granular Activated Carbon standard.
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GAC Testing Isotherm Testing
Batch test to evaluate GAC adsorptive capacity
Rapid Small-Scale Column Tests (RSSCT) Simulates full-scale performance in short
period of time
Small diameter (less 1.0 cm ID) are typical
Identifies carbon type, breakthrough data, usage rates
Can be used to calibrate vendor models
Pilot testing When water quality variability or
combinations of processes are necessary.
Column treatment study
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Photo courtesy of Langan Engineering
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Isotherm Testing
Not a dynamic indicator of full scale performance
Provides screening-level understanding of effectiveness
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Graphics used with permission: Calgon Carbon Corporation, 2018
Solution in contact with increasing amount of carbon
Equilibrium Reached
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Column Testing Example
Less effective for shorter chain carbon compounds (PFBS and PFHxA).
Differences between sulfonates and carboxylates.
Initial breakthrough above detection: PFBS at 256 days.
PFHxA at 311 days.
PFHpA at 367 days.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200P
FA
S C
on
cen
trati
on
, n
g/L
Simulated Days of Operation
PFBSPFBS Average InfluentPFHpAPFHpA Average Influent
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Graph courtesy of Langan, with permission of client.
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Ion Exchange (IX) Resin vs. GAC
GAC removes by adsorption
using hydrophobic “Tail”
PFOS – Perfluorooctane Sulfonate
Selective IX Resins removes by both ion exchange
and adsorption using both “Head” & “Tail”
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Figure Courtesy of Langan/Adapted from Purolite
Sulfonate group
Hydrophobic “Tail” Ionized “Head”
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Single-Use Selective Resin + Incineration
Short Contact Time ~3 minsSimple & Effective - Operator Preferred
Incineration or other disposal alternative
Treated waterPFAS in water
Illustrations courtesy of Purolite, Inc.
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Single-Use Selective Resin Simple, field-demonstrated
High removal effectiveness
Small footprint/headspace
High operating capacity 100,000 to 350,000 BV
Operation costs Need to be based upon site-
specific resin usage rates and disposal costs
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Example Ion Exchange Removal Curves at Specific Influent Concentrations
Data courtesy of Purolite, Inc.
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Precautions in Reviewing Data Compare apples to apples
Empty bed contact time (ECBT)
• GAC EBCT for this study is half of what is typically (10-12 min) used
• IX EBCT is shorter (2-3 min)
Compare gallons treated before breakthrough, the difference between GAC and IX may be less pronounced
Factors that impact effectiveness
• Site specific geochemical parameters
• Co-contaminants
• Other factors
Consider site-specific testing before selecting sorptive media
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Data courtesy of Purolite, Inc.
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Regenerable Ion Exchange Resins
Demonstrated on the bench to be equally effective after multiple regeneration cycles
Regeneration solution is solvent and brine
Solvent can be recovered and reused
Distilled brine runs through GAC then is loaded on high-capacity IX media for incineration
The low volume, high concentration liquid waste may in the future be able to be destroyed with destructive options (developing technologies such as non-thermal plasma, electrochemical oxidation)
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Regenerable Resin Process
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PFAS
Image provided courtesy of ECT2 and Wood
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In Situ Sorption Colloidal activated carbon with a biopolymer
Technology widely demonstrated for VOCs
Can be installed as a treatment barrier
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Before Treatment
Treatment zone with 20 inj points
30 Months After Injection
Graphics used with permission of Regenesis, Inc., after: Rick McGregor, Remediation, 2018; 28:33-41
Full-scale demonstrations at several sites
Unknown longevity, but modeling predicts >100 years
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Reverse Osmosis
Membrane Processes
Effective for PFAS High pressure membrane
High energy usage
Reject water disposal
Typically used on lower flow rates
Questions about sustainability
Removes a wide range of constituents: Including hardness, dissolved solids, as well as VOCs and PFAS
Costly Capital
Operating
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Flocculation/Coagulation
Pre-treatment technology Many products have been tested:
Alum, ferrate, ferric sulfate, Polydiallyldimethylammonium chloride (polyDADMAC)
Multiple flocculants can be used to address varied chain lengths
Pilot-scale systems in Europe Sludge disposal is needed Carbon or Resin Polishing
Results in less disposal quantities than GAC directly
Non-detect concentrations with adsorbent polishing
Photos courtesy of Bill DiGuiseppi, Jacobs
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Soil Remediation Technologies
Conventional Excavation and landfill
Excavation and offsite incineration
Stabilization
Developing/Limited demonstrations Soil Washing
Thermal
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Soil Remedial Technologies
Excavation with offsite disposal in a permitted landfill, where allowed. Out of abundance of caution, some
landfills no longer will accept PFAS soils. Do not assume this is straightforward.
Excavation with offsite incineration Must be >1,100oC for PFAS
Destruction assumed but not well documented
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Photo courtesy of CH2M/Jacobs
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Soil Remediation Technology Stabilization/Immobilization
via sorption Combination of powder-
based reagents with high surface area and various binding methods: Powdered activated carbon,
aluminum hydroxide, kaolin clay Added from 1-5% by weight to soil Fully commercial & demonstrated
in Australia Extensive testing, research and
demonstration in Europe
Images courtesy of Ziltek™ and AquaBlok Ltd.
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Treatability Study: PFOS/PFOA in Soil Two commercial airport sites in Australia
Site soils mixed with proprietary combination of GAC and additives at various addition rates
Soil leachates prepared using the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)
Data courtesy of Ziltek Pty Ltd.
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Soil Stabilization Example
Photos and information courtesy of Ziltek Pty Ltd.Cell design graphic courtesy of Langan
1,100 tons PFAS impacted soils stabilized on-site at two airports during upgrade activities.
Transport and disposal in a purpose-built burial cell located at a municipal waste landfill site.
Cell lined and covered with stabilization agent.
EPA Test Method 1311 and 1320 (TCLP and MEP) to verify performance.
Soil Burial Cell Design
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Developing - Treatment TechnologiesStewart Abrams, PE
Langan Engineering and Environmental Services, Inc.
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Developing Separation Technologies Zeolites
Microporous aluminosilicate minerals
Limited testing beyond PFOS/PFOA
Less sorptive than GAC
Requires disposal/destruction of media
Foam Fractionation Air microbubbles separate PFAS
Demonstrated in Australia
Biochar Pyrolyzed biomass to create
charcoal
Demonstrated on wide variety of PFAS
Limited effectiveness on short-chain PFAS
Competitive sorption an issue
Requires disposal/destruction of media
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PAC+Additives* Ex-Situ Adsorption
Evaluated in Australia, U.S. and Germany
Passed PFAS contaminated water (1.8 mg/L) through two different columns, up to 100 pore volumes One column with activated carbon
One column with powder activated carbon and additives
Evaluated short- and long-chain PFAS
Removed shorter chain PFAS more effectively than activated carbon alone
* Rembind™. Data courtesy of Ziltek Pty Ltd.27
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Electrochemical Coagulation Electrical charges generate metal hydroxide floc
Floc is polar and sorbs to PFAS
Optimal energy, plate material, and pH control kinetics
Zinc anode shown to be best
Waste sludge disposal is needed
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Zn2+
Al3+
PFOA
ZnO/Zn0.70Al0.30(OH)2(CO3)0.15•xH2O
Figure courtesy of Bill DiGuiseppi, Jacobs
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Use of direct current (DC) to degrade PFAS Electrode material (Boron-doped diamond, MMO, lead-dioxide etc.)
Major byproducts: Fluoride ions, shorter-chain PFAS, perchlorate
Limitations
Electrochemical Oxidation
29Reprinted with permission from Schaefer, et al., 2015. Electrochemical treatment of perfluorooctanoic
acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) in groundwater impacted by aqueous film forming
foams (AFFFs). Jour. Haz. Materials., 295:170-175. Copyright 2015 Elsevier.
Source: Schaefer et al. 2015
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Oxidation/Reduction Approaches Activated Persulfate
High-temperature activation found to oxidize PFCAs, but not PFSA. Subject of current SERDP research.
Photolysis Typically in presence of catalyst
Geochemistry has profound effect
E-Beam Established, but not common, destructive technology for other
recalcitrant chemicals
Tested for PFAS in academic lab
Oxidizing/reducing chemical reactions
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Chemical Reduction
Zero Valent Metals Combination of sorption onto iron as well as
reduction via dehydrohalogenation
Ultraviolet light + sulfite Creates hydrated electrons, strong reducing
agents that react with carboxylates and sulfonates
Could be used for concentrate destruction
Vitamin B12 with titanium citrate Limited bench tests
Primarily attacks branched vs linear PFOS
Required high heat and pH in some cases
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Images courtesy of Timm Strathmann, Colorado School of Mines
HPLC Ret Time (min)
Before Treatment
HPLC Ret Time (min)
After 2nd Sulfite Add
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Sonolysis (Ultrasound) Sound waves >19 kHz create
cavities in liquids
Cavities collapse at maximum radius creating extreme localized conditions High heat (50000K)
High pressure (1000 bar)
PFAS sorb to the cavity interface
Cavity collapses Cleaves bond between hydrophobic
and hydrophilic portions of molecules
32Figures courtesy of Michelle Crimi, Clarkson
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Plasma Treatment
Uses electricity to convert water into mixture of highly reactive species OH•, O, H•, HO2
•, O2•‒, H2, O2, H2O2 and
aqueous electrons (e‒aq)
Plasma formed by means of electrical discharge between one high voltage and one groundwater within or contacting the water
Argon gas pumped through diffuser Produces bubble layer on surface that
concentrates PFAS
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Photos courtesy of Selma Mededovic, Clarkson
Stratton, G.R., et al. (2015). Chemical Engineering
Journal, 273: 543-550.
Stratton, G. R., et al., (2017). Environmental Science &
Technology 2017, 51(3):1643-1648.
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Combined Remedy: Separate and Destroy
In situ precursor transformation with oxidation
Ex situ IX: regenerable resin
Plasma destruction of concentrated PFAS in liquid
34SERDP ER18-1306; ESTCP ER-5015
Figure courtesy of Michelle Crimi, Clarkson
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Soil Separation/Washing
A handful of bench and pilot scale tests Torneman, 2017 – Two sites in Sweden
Ventia, 2018 – One site in Australia
Minimally documented, but available results are positive
Lower throughput for clay-rich soils
Treatment of multiple waste streams (water, sludge) required
Dry sieving may concentrate PFAS in limited volume fraction (i.e., clays and organic fines)
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Thermal Desorption for PFAS in Soil
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Bench scale information
Targeted for unsaturated zone AFFF source areas
Would require wet scrubber and scrubber water treatment (GAC)
Air discharge control would be needed
Initial Total
PFAS Conc.
(µg/kg)
% Decrease
in Total PFAS
Exposure
Temperature/
Time
Number of
PFAS
Analyzed
200 26 250°C 8 days 29
15140
99.4
300°C 4 days
350°C 2 days29
290
89.3-99.8
97.3->99.9*
99.8->99.9*
400°C 60 mins
550°C 50 mins
700°C 80 mins
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* >99.9% decreases are based on the limited analytical suite performed and based on decreases below the Limits of Detection
Data courtesy of William DiGuiseppi, Jacobs
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PFAS Remediation Technologies: Takeaways
There are a lot of technologies with promise to treat PFAS
There are only a few that are considered field implemented Excavation and incineration or sorption/stabilization for soil
Pump and treat with GAC, membrane filtration, or ion exchange for water
Limited application approaches Thermal desorption or soil washing for soil
Injectable sorbents, coagulants for water
Developing technologies Destructive chemical treatment
Treatment trains (combinations of unit processes) should be considered
Treatability and pilot studies are the norm
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