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Kinship with the Martyrs

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PRINTED FROM OXFORD SCHOLARSHIP ONLINE (www.oxfordscholarship.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2014.All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of amonograph in OSO for personal use (for details see http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/page/privacy-policy). Subscriber: CentralEuropean University Library; date: 07 August 2014

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ArchitectsofPiety:TheCappadocianFathersandtheCultoftheMartyrsVasilikiM.Limberis

Printpublicationdate:2011PrintISBN-13:9780199730889PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:May2011DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199730889.001.0001

KinshipwiththeMartyrs

SaintsasRelativesandRelativesasSaints

VasilikiM.Limberis(ContributorWebpage)

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199730889.003.0004

AbstractandKeywords

ThischapteraddresseshowtheCappadocians’imbricationwiththeirownfamiliesmergeswiththeirpromotionofmartyrpiety.Theyuseittoforgenewrelationshipswiththemartyrsandtopromotetheirownfamilies.Theyweresuccessfulbecauseavibrantsacramentallifeforthelaitywasnotyetthenorm;everypiouscatechumencouldparticipateinapanegyrisformartyrs.Theypromotekinshipwiththemartyrsasspiritualkinship,opentomonasticsandlaityalike.BasilandGregoryofNyssaevenclaimedthreesaintsasrelatives:GregoryThaumaturgus,Thecla,andtheFortyMartyrs.Hence,theprestigeoftheirownfamilywentbeyondallsocialparameters.Finally,GregoryofNazianzusandGregoryofNyssainscribetheirrecentlydeceasedkinintotheranksofthemartyrs.TheCappadocianssucceedinbypassingtheneedforprocreation,sincethroughmartyrpietytheirfamily’shonorisforever.


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Keywords:kinship,asceticism,baptism,marriage,godparents,Emmelia,Macrina,Gorgonia,Caesarius,Nonna

Itisverydifficultforthepresent-dayreadertograsptheideathatfamiliesasaristocratic,educated,andrichastheCappadocianswillingly“chosesocialextinction”fortheirgens.1Ordidthey?Onewouldbehard-pressedrightnowtocomeupwiththenameofevenonefamousfamilyoffourth-centuryCappadociawhosemembersmarried,hadchildren,andpassedonvastestates.Contrarytothealmostuniversalnotionsofwaystoperpetuateone’sfamilyline,nearlyalltheCappadocianswentagainstthetraditionalstandardsoftheirownsocietyandinvestedtheirenergiesinacompletelynewwayofliving—asceticism.Yet,theyblendedaristocraticidealsofsocietyinlateantiquity—suchaspatronage,statesmanship,socialnetworking,andmaintenanceofagoodreputation—intotheirliveswhilepursuingChristianasceticisminvaryingdegrees.Theycontinuedtofollowallthesocietalnormstheyhadinheritedthrougheducationandacculturation,mostnotablyinmasteringtheconventionsofpublicspeaking,civicdeportment,andnegotiatingpoliticalaffairs.Thesetheycarriedoutinrhetoricalcompositions,inproperlydeliveredaddresses,infinelycraftedletters,andthroughpatronageandleadershipfortheircommunitiesintheformsofmartyria,churches,monasteries,hospitals,andorphanages.Infact,theywere(p.98) alsoquitesuccessfulinutilizingallthetraditionalmediacommoninlateantiquityforpromotingtheirfamilies.WhiletheCappadocianFatherswerecertainlycelibate,theirpersonalversionsoftheasceticlifeaccommodatedthestrengtheningofkinshiptieswiththeirfamiliesforever.

Whatwassorevolutionarywastheirjustificationforwhytheirfamiliesweresospecialanddeservedmemorializing.Throughanelaborate,lifelongeffortattelling(andretelling)thestoriesofthelocalmartyrsandinconnectingtheirfamiliestothosestories,BasilandGregoryofNyssasuccessfullylaidclaimtothemartyrsastheirspiritualkin.Theirownfamilywas“related”tothemostimportantmartyrsoftheregion:Thecla,GregoryThaumaturgus,andtheFortyMartyrsofSebasteia.Theirsuccessatjustifyingsuchclaimsistheepitomeofwhathasbeenaptlycalled,“theculturemakingaspectsofmartyrdom’srepresentations.”2AllthreeCappadocianswentevenfurther.Theirwritingsimmortalizedtheirdeceasedfamilymemberswithfuneralpanegyricsthatbestowedthemartyrs’virtuesontotheconductoftheirlives.Knowingwhotheiraudienceswereandthat“thetextsaregenerativeofcollectivememory,theCappadociansactivelycontributedtotheirownmemorializing.”3Insodoingtheyalsoincreasedtheirpowerandprestige.

ThischapterwillexploretheformsofkinshipknowntotheCappadocians—affinal,adoptive,andspiritual—andwhatthesemeantinthecontextoftheChurch.Eachofthesecouldbeachievedthroughoneormoremeans:monasticism,marriageandbirth,ormartyrpiety.Ofcourse,theseveralmeanstokinshipoftenoverlap,asweshallseefirstinthebriefdiscussionofmonasticism,whichisbothadoptiveandspiritual.Atthispoint,itwillbecrucialtothenexplainhowaffinalrelationshipscameaboutinfourth-centuryCappadocia,withspecialattentiontothestatusofbaptismspecifically,andsacramentallifegenerally,inthefourth-centuryChurch.Aswillbeevident,theCappadociansendedupbeingbeneficiariesofthisbriefperiodinchurchhistorywhenanactivesacramentallifeforthelaitywasstilldevelopingandnotwidespread,andwhenmartyrpietyservedasthecustomarywaypeopleshowedChristiandevotion.ThoughsomereadersmayknowthefamilystoriesoftheCappadociansverywell,itisessentialnexttoreviewtheirbiographiestobringtotheforewhattheyfoundmostvaluableinkinship.Thischapterwillthenhighlightsomeofthemostimportant


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relationshipsintheCappadocians’ownfamilies,andhowtheyinfluencedeachother’slifedecisions.Suchdiscussionsperfectlycontextualize,asweshallsee,theCappadocians’conceptof“kinshipwiththemartyrs.”

(p.99) ThenextsectionexploreshowtheCappadocianFathersmadestrategicuseoftherathernebulous,formativesituationinecclesiasticalpiety(atleastnebulousbylaterstandards)inordertopromotekinshipwiththemartyrsforeveryone,andhowkinshipwiththemartyrsqualifiedforthemostpartasspiritualkinship.Yetfortheirownfamilies,kinshipwithmartyrswassovaluedthatitbecamesomethingmorethanspiritual.ForBasilandNyssen,connectingtheirownfamilymemberstocertainmartyrsinnearlyconsanguineousrelationshipsbasedonfamilymodelsgavethemspecialadvantagesintheChurch.Theiruniqueconceptofkinshipwiththemartyrs(consanguineousandspiritual)wassopervasivethatreferencestosuchhereditaryconnectionsarescatteredthroughouteverygenreoftheirwritings.Itisimportant,therefore,topayparticularattentiontowhatmartyrtheyclaim,inwhatcontext,andforwhichfamilymember.

ItispreciselyinthiscontextthattheCappadocians’martyrpietymovedseamlesslyfromtheinnersanctumoftheirfamiliestothepublicsphereoftheChurch.AstheybecamebishopsoftheChurchonthepublicstage,alltheCappadocianseventuallytooktheirbrothers,sisters,mothers,fathers,andbestfriendsintoanevenmoreprivilegedposition—intotherealmofthesaints.ThelastsectionofthechapterwillrevealhownaturalitwasfortheCappadocianstoblurtheboundariesbetweenapanegyrictoamartyrandafuneralencomiumforadeceasedfamilymember.Bymergingtheirvirtuesinlife—includingmiracles—withtherhetoricalformoftheclassicpanegyric,theCappadociansassurethattheirbelovedrelationswouldachieveindeaththesamesaintlystatusasthemartyr.Inthisregard,GregoryofNyssa’sliteraryeffortsforhissisterMacrinawereexceptional;heinventedanewgenreforherthatgoesbeyondafuneralencomium.TheLifeofMacrinaistrulyahagiobiography.

Finally,thechapteranalyzesthebitsandpiecesofdescriptionsoftheirfuneralrituals,whicharenearlyidenticaltotherubricsofamartyrfestival.Notonlydoesthisreinforcetheidentityofthedeceasedpersonasamartyr,butinabrilliantwayitalsotemporarilydemolishesclassbarriers,sinceallpeoplewerewelcomeat—andindeedfamiliarwith—amartyr’spanegyris.ThisbecomesallthemoredistinctiveandextraordinarywhenwerememberthattheCappadociansconstantlypreachedthateveryone,richandpooralike,shouldbecome“friendsofthemartyrs.”

TheProceduresofKinshipBeforedelvingintotheepisodesintheCappadocians’livessobrimmingwiththevitalityoffamilylife,itishelpfultotakealookatthemeansofsocialinteractionthatcreatedkinshipforthem.Thislaysthefoundationfor(p.100) understandingtheirconceptoftheirownkinshipwiththemartyrs.“Kinspeoplehaveaspecialrelationshipofobligation,trust,honesty,andsupport”infourth-centuryCappadocia.4Mostespecially,kinshipfortheCappadociansisnotdefinedsolelyasbiologicalreproduction,althoughbloodrelations,ofcourse,fitintotheirideaofkinship.“Itisbesttoviewkinshipasaninstrumentforconceivingofsocialrelations.”5Seeingkinshipasaqualityofbehavior,disconnectedfrombiologicalreproduction,freesitfromtheconstraintsofboth“metaphorickinship”and“fictivekinship.”6Asweshallsee,onceoneisrelatedtoanotherperson,theobligationsandprivilegesoftherelationshiparesous


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entendus.Thekeytounderstandingkinshipinthislightistofocusonhowpeoplebecomerelated.FortheCappadocians,therewereseveralpathways.Thebestroutetoestablishkinship,intheirview,wasformalentryintothemonasticlifewhichestablishedspiritualkinshipties;butthiswascertainlynotforthemajorityofChristians.Theothermeanstokinshipweremarriage,birth,andmartyrpiety,opentoeveryonenotcommittedalreadytoamonasticvocation;yet,ofcourse,monastics,too,couldparticipateinkinshipthroughmartyrpiety.7Tothisend,itisfirstnecessarytoexaminemonastickinshipbrieflybeforeexploringthestatusofmarriageandbirth—thelatterthroughthesacramentofbaptism—intheirCappadociancontext.

MonasticKinship

FromthetremendousamountofrecentliteratureontheemergenceofcoenobiticmonasticisminAsiaMinor,itisquitewellestablishedthatBasilofCaesareaculledwhathefoundusefulinextantmonasticpracticesfromallovertheeasternMediterraneanandEgypttofoundmonastichouseholdsbasedonaclearlydelineatedcommunalrule.8Hecertainlyrefinedandregularizedmonasticlife,buthedidnotcreateitanew.9BasilexplicitlysaysthatthebestmeansforeachpersontorestorethelikenessofGodistochoosetheasceticlife,not(p.101) inisolation,butincommunity.10ThroughouttheAsceticon,whereBasilreiterateshowoneistoliveharmoniouslywithothersinthemonastery,hedemonstrateshowthecoenobiticlifecreatesspiritualkinshipamongthebrothers,orsisters,attheexpenseofbiologicalkinship.Basilconsciouslyassumesthelanguageoffamilialkinship,supplantingboththeneedandimportanceofthetraditionalfamily,andappliesittothedailycommunallifeofthemonastery.“Themonasterywasnotasupplementtothetraditionalbondsofsocietybutawholesalereplacementofthem.”11ThefollowingthemesaboutspiritualkinshipemergeconsistentlyintheAsceticon.

First,thecoenobiticliferequiresthateachcandidaterenounceallbiologicalbondsofkinship.BasillacestheAsceticonwithJesus’wordsinLuke14:26invariousformsandsimultaneouslycutsthroughtheveryfoundationsofsecularsociety—thefamily:“Whoevercomestomeanddoesnothatefatherandmother,wifeandchildren,brothersandsisters,yes,evenlifeitselfcannotbemydisciple.”12Heisveryclearthateachnovice“mustrenouncealltiesofphysicalrelationshipandhumanfriendships.”13Basilwiselysuggeststhatifthecandidatehasanywishtogetmarried,heorsheshoulddoso“beforemakingthepromisetolivethereligiouslife,”becauseweretheindividualtodosoafterward,heorshewouldbreakavowtoGod.14Monasticscouldnotgovisittheirrelativesforanyreason,includingsickness,andonlypiousrelativescouldvisitthemonasteryforashorttime,withsupervisionandwithoutextensiveconversation.Moreover,everyvisitingrelativewastobeconsideredtherelativeofeveryotherbrother(orsister)ofthemonastery,neverone’s“own.”15

Despitesodrasticarepudiationoffamily,monasticsdidnotfindthemselvesalone,alienated,andinchaos.Theyhadanewfather(ormother)inthesuperiorofthemonastery,andtheyhadmanysiblings,allhierarchicallyarrangedasseniororjuniormonasticsinaworkinghousehold,actinginvariousrolesasteacher,boss,orhelper.16“Thebasicunitofmonasticlife,justasoutsidethemonastery,was‘household,’ledbya‘congregationalparent,’a‘memberofthehousehold,’or‘kinsmen.’”17Basilstatesquiteclearlythatamonastic’s“true(p.102) parents”arethosewhobroughthimtothespirituallifeoftheGospel.Mostimportant,amonastic“looksuponashisbrethrenthosewhohavereceivedthesamespiritof


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adoption.”18Thus,monasticismhasacompletefamilysysteminplacethatsupplantsphysical,affinalkinshipwithspiritualandadoptivekinship.

Thefinalbenefitofmonastickinshipismaterialwelfare.Basilmakescarefulprovisionsforcandidatestodisposeoftheirproperty.Hesuggests,first,thatthepersondisposeofithimself,butifhehasproblemsofanysort,beitwithrelativesoranyoneelse,heshouldnotletabloodrelativetakecharge.19Ifheneedstoseekajudgment,heshouldnottakeittoasecularcourt.Thoughhedoesnotsayso,onecansafelyassumethejudgewouldbethesuperiorofthecommunity,orabishop,sinceBasilworkedsteadilytomovemonasticismunderecclesiasticaladministration.20Furthermore,Basildisapprovedofrelativesbestowinggiftsonthemonastery,butheleftthefinaldecisiontothesuperior.21Aswithmattersofdiscipline,workschedule,prayer,andconduct,alldecisionsconcerningland,money,shelter,livestock,clothing,andfoodweremadesolelybythesuperior.Sojustasitfunctionedinthefourth-centuryhousehold,propertyownershipinthemonasterydefined“theruleofthefather”overthehouseholdmuchmorethandidblood.22

FromtheAsceticonweseehowBasilanticipatedeverymaterialneedofthenewmonastic,justaswouldanygoodfather.Hegivesampleattentiontoawidevarietyofmaterialconcerns,suchassuitableclothing,belts,comfortableshoes,moderationinconsumingmeals,dinnertimedeportment,careforthesickmembersofthecommunity,manuallabor,honorabletradestoteachtheorphans,andmethodstoconductbusiness.23Basilknewthatmaterialsupportwasthemostrudimentaryobligationandbenefitoffamily,andhemadesurethatthemonasteryfulfilledthatrole.Likeawell-runfamilyhousehold,themonasteryprovidedforeveryneed.Inthisway,alltieswiththesecularworldcouldbemoreeasilybroken.Monasticsnolongerneededanysupportoftheirfamilies,anyformofcharity,oranyrichperson’spatronage.24

Finally,itiswellworthnotingwhatBasilhastosaywhenmonasticsattendamartyr’spanegyris.Hedealswiththesubjectbecauseitseemslucrative(p.103) emporiaweresetupadjacenttomartyriawhenthepanegyriswastakingplace.Basilspecifiesingreatdetailinseveralotherplaceshowmonksweretomarkettheirhandiwork,butundernocircumstancescouldtheyconductbusinessatamartyrshrine.

Weshouldnotmaketheshrinestheoccasionandplaceforamarketandafairandcommontradeinsteadofprayingforoneanother,adoringGodtogether,imploringHisaidewithtears,makingsatisfactionfortheirsins,thankingHimforHisbenefactionandstrengtheningtheirfaithbyhearingwordsofexhortation(practiceswhichweknowtohaveoccurredwithourownmemory),weoughtnottoimitatethemandconfirmtheirunseemlyconductbyalsoparticipatinginsuchcommercialpursuits.25

Wehavearareglimpsehereofaconvergenceoftwoworlds—monasticsatthemartyrshrine,wherehoardsoflaitywouldbe—andmartyrpietyseemstobethegreatlevelerofthetwo.Monasticsandlaypeople—twogroupsofChristianswhointentionallyliveapartfromeachother—havenodistinctionbeforethemartyrs.Nomatterwhattheirsocialarrangementinsociety,allChristianscometothemartyrsalike,andallmustshowthesamereverence.

KinshipthroughMarriageandBirth


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Inthefirstfourcenturies,theChurchdidnothingtocontravenetheRomanlawsandcustomsconcerningtheinstitutionofmarriage,evenafterthesettlementofConstantine.“Untilatleasttheendoftheninthcentury,theByzantinesgenerallyconcludedmarriagesascivilcontractswithoutanyinvolvementoftheChurchinthelegalaspectsofthemarriagecontract.”26Asdemonstratedin1Corinthians,Ephesians,1Timothy,andTitus,theearlyChurchwasprimarilyinterestedinhowpeoplelivedafterthemarriage.Thatpeoplecontinuedtocontractmarriagesfortheirchildrenorthemselves,andhostedtheceremonyandcelebrationsaccordingtoRomanlawandcustom,wassimplyagiveninChristianlife.MarriagecustomsfromGreco-Romanantiquitycontinuedinfourth-centuryCappadocia.Theseincludedsuchpracticesasbetrothalgiftsfrombridegroomtobride,crownsofeitherpreciousmetalorwreathedflowersforthecouple,exchangeofrings,andcelebrationsafterward,includingfeastinganddancing.27

(p.104) ThediscussionsofmarriagefoundinthewritingsoftheCappadocianFathersfitthispattern.Infact,nearlyhalfofBasil’seighty-fourcanonsonpracticalmattersinthelifeoftheChurchconcernmarriage.Yetheneverdealswiththeprocessofcreatingthemarriageceremony,decidingwhoofficiatesatthewedding,ordesignatinghowtheChurchblessesthemarriage.HemostcertainlydoesnotproposeatheologyofmarriageorspeakofmarriageasasacramentintheChurch.Basil’sconcerniscenteredmuchmoreonethicallivingduringmarriage,thenumberofremarriagesonemighthave,andpenancesforthosewhoviolateethicallivingstandards.Hence,Basil’scanonscallingforrestrictionsonsecondandthirdmarriagesandprohibitionoffourthmarriageswouldbecomenormativeattheCouncilinTrulloin692.28

ThefollowingcanonbesttypifiestheCappadocians’viewofmarriage:“Marriagescontractedwithoutthepermissionofthoseinauthorityarefornication.Ifneitherfathernormasterbeliving,thecontractingpartiesarefreefromblame;justasiftheauthoritiesassenttothecohabitation,itassumesthefixityofmarriage.”29Thus,theCappadociansacceptedthatmarriageswerecontractualrelationshipsbetweenaconsentingmanandwoman,thattheywereconductedoutsidetheprovenanceoftheChurch,andthatthemostfundamentaltiesofkinshipresultedfrommarriage.

SomeofGregoryofNazianzus’lettersshowastrongrespectforweddings,andintheprocessthelettersalsogiveusevidenceaboutweddingritualsandcustomsatthetime.Christianclergywereinvitedtoweddingsjustlikeanyotherguest.Suchinvitationsweresporadicinthefourthcenturyanddependedonthefriendshipandsocialstatusoftheparentsandclergy.30IfGregoryhadbeenabletoattendtwoweddingstowhichhewasinvited,hewouldhavedeliveredtheepithalamios,thetraditionalhymndeliveredatGreco-Romanweddings,notasabishopbutasanhonored,talentedrhetor.Unfortunately,onbothoccasionshewastoosicktoattend.

(p.105) Inoneletter,NazianzenasksacertainEusebiustoexcusehimfromtheweddingofthelovelygirlEvopia.HeinsiststhatEusebiussingtheepithalamiosinhisstead,andthatthefatherplacethecrownsontheheadsofthebrideandgroom.31FortheweddingofOlympias,daughterofhisfriendVitalianus,hesentanexquisiteweddinghymn,writteninhisimpeccableGreekverse.32WhenGregorybegsofftheinvitation,hewritesthathewouldbethelaughingstockofthereceptionsincehehas,inessence,twoleftfeet!33Hewritesfurther


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thatjokesandlightheartednessarerequiredforweddings,butthenhebecomesmoreserious,addingasalientcommentontheweddingceremony.Ifhewereattendingtheweddinghewould“jointhecouple’srighthandstogether,andthenunitethemtoGod,tobringthebestthingstotheirunionaccordingtoourcommonprayers.”34ThisishisChristianinnovationandaddendumtotheceremony,hisuniquepersonalblessing.

BothlettersshowthatChristianityhadlittletonoinfluenceontheweddingceremonyofthattime.Infact,GregorystateshisownpersonalinnovationonGreco-Romantraditionwhenheattendsweddings:healwayshasthefathercrownthecouple,andhesaystheprayers,“whichareneverlimitedbyplace.”35CrowningthecoupleandthejoiningoftheirrighthandsasasymbolofConcordiaweretheage-oldritualsofRomanmarriage.36Gregory’smoralconcernscenternotonforgingthecontractbutonthetraditionalweddingcelebrationsaftertheceremony.Letter232standsoutparticularlybecauseheissoworriedaboutmaintainingthedecorumofthecelebration.Andheisnoteveninvitedtothewedding!HewritestoacertainDiocles,thefatherofthebride,sayingthathewillbeattheweddinginspirit.Withhisownwistfulpastoralnote,headds:

(p.106) ForoneofthemostbeautifulthingsataweddingistohaveChristpresent,andwhereverChrististhereismodesty,andwaterbecomeswine.Thatistosay,everythingistransformedintosomethingbetter,notjustahodge-podgeofbishopsandclowns,prayersandapplauses,psalmsandstimulatingflutemusic.ItisnecessaryforChristianstoguardtheirmodestyonalloccasions,andthisincludesatweddings.Ifyourson-in-lawrespectsthis,youshallhaveason.Ifnot,thenyouwillbestuckwithasoldier.37

Gregory’sadditionofChristtotheweddingisanotableinnovation.MarriagewasnotyetundertheumbrellaoftheChurch—evenlesswasitregardedasasacrament.YettheevidenceshowsthattheCappadociansheldmarriageinhighesteemandobviouslyvalueditasmeansofkinship.

Aftermarriage,birthestablishesfundamentalbondsofkinship.Butlikemarriage,theChurchofthefourthcenturyhadnomeansofsanctifyingbirth,orevenofincludingitundertheauspicesofecclesiasticaldominion.BecausetheeventsofbirthandchildbaptismnotonlybecameinextricablylinkedbutalsobecamethenorminChristianityfromtheeighthcenturyonward,itiscrucialheretodecouplethetwoevents.Birthandbaptismweretwoeventsnotassociatedinfourth-centurychurchpractice.Infact,baptism’sroleinkinshipisyetunformedinthefourthcentury.

AswasthecustomforthemajorityofChristiansinthefourthcentury,alloftheCappadocianswerebaptizedasadults.Wehavenoexamplesintheirfamiliesofinfantorchildbaptism.GregoryofNazianzusintroducestheideaofbaptizingsmallchildren,butnotbabies,“foritisbetterthattheyshouldbeunconsciouslysanctifiedthanthattheyshoulddepartunsealedanduninitiated.”38Butthisisanovelidea.HejustifiesitbyequatingittoJewishcircumcisionontheeighthday,“whichwassortofatypicalseal.”39Forthosechildrennotindangerofdying,Gregorysuggeststhatchildrenofagethreeorfourshouldbebaptized,“whentheymaybeabletolistenandtoanswersomethingabouttheSacrament.”40

Forthesamereason,alltheCappadocianspleadwithpeopletostopdelayingbaptism.


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Nazianzenstatesthecommonreasonfordelayedbaptism:“ButareyouafraidlestyoushoulddestroythegiftofGod,anddoyouthereforeputoffyourcleansing,becauseyoucannothaveitasecondtime?”41AndGregory(p.107) ofNyssabegs,“Youfindyourselfoutsideofparadise,Ocatechumen,andpartofthecompanyoutsidetheboundarieswithAdamtheforefather….Asayoungpersonyousay,‘Iamnotoldyet.’Donotbedeceived,fordeathisnotlimitedbythepreferencesofage,neitherisdeathfrightenedbythoseintheirprime,itspowerisnotonlyoveroldpeople.”42Basil’soration,althoughriveting,obviouslyhadlittleeffect.“Whatwillconqueryou?Pleasureofthefleshorholinessofthesoul?Enjoymentofthepresentortheyearningforthefuture?Shouldtheangelsskipoveryou,orshouldtheyholdyouclose?”43Theexcusesoftheirparishionersecholoudlyinthesewritings.

TheCappadociansmakenomentionofeithersponsorsorgodparentsforbaptism,althoughotherChristianauthorssuchasHippolytus,Egeria,JohnChrysostom,andAugustinegivesomeevidenceofsponsorswhotestifiedthatthecatechumenwasworthyofbaptism;andtheyremainedwiththeircatechumenduringtheweeksofpreparationforthebaptism.44Oncethebaptismalceremonywasfinished,thesponsorshadnofurtherroletoplay.45EventhoughafewdecadeslaterJohnChrysostomreferstothesponsorasthe“spiritualfather,”andthecatechumenasthe“spiritualchild,”neithertheclergynorthelaityofthefourthcenturysawthesocialutilityyetofmakingsponsorsintokin,ofmakingthemintogodparents.46Inessence,thepracticedidnotcatchonuntilwellintothefifthandsixthcenturies.WhileitislikelythattheCappadocianFathershadsponsorswhentheywerebaptized,perhapstheywerefamilymembersorbishopswhohadtaughtthem,wehavenoevidence.Insteadofmentioningsomeonetovouchforthecatechumen,Nazianzenconsistentlystressesthatbaptismisanindividualdecisionandthateachpersonmustpreparehimselfforthecleansingmystery.Hescoldspeopleforquibblingaboutwhowillbaptizethem,amerepriestorabishopofhighrank;forconcerningthemselvesaboutthequalityofthefabricofthebaptismalrobetheywillwear;andfordisdainingtobebaptizedwithpoorpeople.47

Inthenexttwocenturies,baptizingchildrenandinfantsbecamemorecommon,astheirparentsbroughtthemtothechurchandactedastheirsponsors.Thatbiologicalparentswouldbecomespiritualparentsinbringing(p.108) theirchildrentobaptismatfirstposednotheologicalproblemfortheChurch.Thispracticechanged,though,bythetimeoftheCouncilinTrullo,692.Furthermore,everyregionofChristendomdevelopedatheologyofspiritualincestthattaughtthatbiologicalparentsandthegodparent(sponsorforeternity)oftheirchildinbaptismwererelatedtooneanotherinspiritualkinship.Physicalmarriagebetweenmembersofthesefamilieswashenceforthstrictlyforbidden.Throughsponsoringtheirchildinbaptism,heorshewouldbecomethefamily’sspiritualrelative,withallthebenefitsoftheimplicitfriendship,loyalty,andpatronage.Biologicalparentsthussawtheadvantagesofinvitingafriendorsocialacquaintancetobecometheirchild’sgodparent.Inessence,theywouldbeinvitinganewpersonintothefamily.Ittookverylittletimeforthistheologyofgodparenthoodtotransformliturgicalactionsintoapatternofsocialbehavior.”48

ItmayseemoddtostresswhatisnotpresentintheconceptofkinshipfortheCappadocianFathers.ItisnecessarytodothisprimarilybecauseoncethesacramentaltheologyofbaptismandmarriagedevelopedsomuchlaterinChristianity,itcametodominateall


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discussionofthesubject,overpoweringthehistoricalrealityofbothinstitutionsinearliercenturies.Thislatersacramentaltheologyofbaptismandmarriage,withitsexplicitramificationsforChristiankinship,simplydidnotexistinthefourthcentury.

FortheCappadocians,baptism,indeed,wasavitalsacrament;butbaptism,eitherofadultsorchildren,didnotestablishkinshipforthem.Conversely,marriagedidestablishkinshipinthefourthcentury,butitwasnotasacramentoftheChurch,nordidtheChurchyethavecontroloverthemarriageortheceremony.SincetheCappadocianswereavidpromotersoftheasceticlife,marriageandprocreationweredecidedlyasecondchoiceforlivingtheChristianlife.Intheirview,tocreatekinshipthroughthisconventionalwayoflifewasalsoinferior.Byconsciouslychoosingasceticism,eachoftheCappadocianFathersactivelystoppedthesocialproductionofconventionalkinship,basedonmarriageandbirth.

Thoughtheypreachedrepudiationofkinshiptiesforthosewhojoinedthemonasteries,andthoughallthreeofthemwerecelibate,theCappadocianscontinuedtovaluekinshiptieswiththeirownfamilymembersquiteseriously,justasthelaitydidinthewidersociety.Kinshipwiththeirownfamilieswasofgreatconsequencetoeachofthem,andtheywerebothassiduousandresponsibleinperformingalltheobligationsthatkinshipdemanded.Giventheirstrongattachmentstotheirfamilies,itmayappearthattheywereultimately(p.109)stymiedbycelibacy,sincekinship,conventionallyspeaking,dependedontraditionalmarriagepatternsandeventualbirths.ButfortheCappadocians,therewas,indeed,onemoreoutstandingwaytoestablishkinship,andthatwasthroughmartyrpiety.

Astheyactivelypromotedofthecultofthemartyrs,theCappadocianscreatedanewnetworkofrelatives—kinshipwiththemartyrs.Theirasceticismmayhavecausedthedemiseoftheirfamilylinesonearth,buttheywereassuredablessedexistenceforeternitybyjoiningthecelestialfamilyofthemartyrs.Furthermore,itwasmartyrpiety,withallitsattendantritualsatshrinesandchurches,thatcreatedaflourishinglifeintheChurchforthefaithfulinthefourthcentury.Christianpietyexpressedthroughactiveparticipationinthesacramentssimplywasnotavisible,popular,ortypicaloccurrenceinthefourthcentury.Fewpeopleelectedtobebaptizedbeforetheendoftheirlives,soatmosttherewouldhavebeenonlyahandfulofpeoplereceivingHolyEucharistattheliturgies.AndwithsomanycatechumensintheChurchorderedtodepartaftertheGospelreadingandthesermon,itishardtoimaginethatthechurcheswerefullduringthesecondhalfoftheliturgyeachSunday.49Inotherwords,fourth-centurypietyoflayChristianswasnotcenteredonthesacraments.50

Thecultofthemartyrswasthebestwaytoestablishkinship,bothforthemselvesandtheirlayparishioners.Theyfoundthatthelaityneededlittlepromptingintheirdevotiontothecultofthemartyrs,andcertainlymostpeoplecontinuedtomarryandhavechildren,whilefewjoinedthemonastery.TheCappadocianstappedintothevastreservoirofextantmartyrpietyamongthelaity,takingcontrolofitandreshapingitthroughorations,buildingmartyria,andconductingceremoniesatmartyrpanegyreis.Indoingso,theypreachedthateveryoneshouldbecomekinwiththemartyrs.Buttheyalsosetthemselvesapartfromthelaityintheirowndevotiontothecultofthemartyrs.Theyclaimedspecialrelationshipsoftheirownancestorstocertainfavoritemartyrs.Andastheybecameadeptatthepracticeofasceticismwithintheconfinesoftheirestates,theyfruitfullyreinterpreted“thestrugglesof‘dailylife’in


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lightofthetrialsofthemartyrs.”51

(p.110) SketchesofTwoFamiliesThefamiliesofBasilandofhisfriendGregoryofNazianzusbothfitthedefinitionofapatrilineal,nuclearfamily,wherethefatherpresidedovertheentirehousehold,whichincludedservantsandslaves.Theywere“nuclear”totheextentthattherewasnoextendedfamilyunderoneroof,astheirdaughtersmarriedouttothehusband’shouseandsonsestablishedtheirownhouseholds.52The“ruleofthefather”overthehouseholdwasmuchlessdeterminedbybiologythanbypropertyownership.53Inpractice,womenoftenruledovertheirhouseholds,dependingontheirstatusaspropertyowner,andthenoftenaswidow.54

BecausealltheCappadocians’historiesarefraughtwithinconclusivenessandreneweddebatesabouttheprecisedatingoftheirlifeevents,acarefulreviewoftheactualstoriesoftheCappadocians’familiesisextremelyimportant,thoughitmayseemtedioustosome.Yetitisalsovitaltomakeperfectlyclearthatmypurposeisnottosetouttheirdefinitivebiographies.55Rather,mypurposeistopresenttheirlivesinthecontextoftheirfamilyhistoriesinordertoconveyasconciselyaspossibletheircloseinterdependencyandtheirstrongfamilyallegiances.NoticingtheirparticularsensitivitiesandspottingtheirsilencesandabsencesatcrucialmomentsintheirlivesisanexercisefordiscoveringtherudimentsoftheCappadocians’ideasaboutkinship.TheirfamilialrelationshipsandinteractionsprovideaninsightnotonlyintotheirownintimatecirclesbutalsointothescenariosrevealinghowhighlytheCappadocianshonoredkinshipofallsorts.“Bynotingthestrategiesandfunctionsofsuchoccasional“profamilialtendencies,”wecanbegintodiscernhowChristianfamiliesweremoldedtofitnewChristianidentitiesinthefluctuatingperiod;andhowthefamilyitselfexertedameasureofinfluenceonthosenewlyfashionedidentities.”56ThroughthebondsofkinshiptheCappadociansknewexactlywhatobligationstheyowedtoeachother,aswellaswhatextraordinary(p.111) privilegessuchkinshipprovided.Thus,theCappadocians’claimofcertainmartyrsastheirkintakesonamuchmoremomentousmeaning,extendingtheirancestrybackinhistorytothemartyrsandtheirindividualfamilymembersforwardintoeternityassaints.

Macrina’s,Basil’s,andGregoryofNyssa’sFamily

Nyssen’sLifeofSaintMacrinaandNazianzen’sPanegyriconSt.Basil,supplementedwithbitsofbiographicalinformationscatteredthroughoutletters,giveagoodsketchofMacrina’s,Basil’s,andGregoryofNyssa’sfamily.BothsetsoftheirgrandparentswereChristian(seetable3.1).Theirpaternalgrandparents,ElderBasilandElderMacrina,werefromPontus.WhenthelastpersecutionbrokeoutunderMaximinDaia,around305–306,thecouplespentsevenyearshidinginthePontianmountains.Afteritended,theyapparentlywereabletoretrievealmostalloftheirconsiderableproperty.Theyprobablyhad(p.112) otherchildreninadditiontotheirsonBasil,sincetherearereferencestopaternalrelativesinNeocaesareawhowouldplayapartintheirnephews’andnieces’liveslateron.57TheirsonBasilwouldbecomethefatherofMacrina,Basil,Naucratius,GregoryofNyssa,Peter,andfourotherdaughters.

Table3.1GenealogiesoftheTwoFamilies


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TheirmaternalgrandparentswerefromCaesarea.Theyhadatleasttwochildren,Emmelia(laterthemotherofMacrina,Basil,Gregory,andtheirsiblings)andherbrotherGregory,namedinlettersas“UncleGregory,”whobecameabishopinCaesarea.58Thesegrandparents,too,werewealthylandholderswithconsiderablestatus,buttheylefteverythingwhentheyfledforsafetyduringthepersecution.Thegrandmotherdiedofnaturalcausesduringtheordeal,andthegrandfatherdiedamartyr.

WhenBasil,afamousadvocateandteacherinPontus,andEmmeliamarried,probablyinthemid-320s,theybroughttogetheragooddealofmoneyandproperty.Theyunitedtwoprestigiousfamiliesandsecuredafutureofprivilege,wealth,power,andstatusfortheirprogeny.Macrinawastheiroldestofninechildren,followedbyBasil,thetwoprobablybornbetween327and331,respectively.Theywerejoinedbyanotherbrother,Naucratius,andthenbyGregoryandfourothersisters,althoughnooneisquitecertainoftheirbirthorder.59WhatiscertainisthatPeterwasbornlast,around343.OneortwoofthesisterscouldhavebeenbornbetweenMacrinaandBasil,sinceBasilwrotehistractToYoungAdolescentsforhisnephews,thechildrenofatleastoneofhissisters.Thesenephewswouldhavebeenoldenoughtocorrespondwiththeiruncleinthe360sonlyiftheirmother,orrespectivemothers,hadbeenbornintheearly330s.60

OnedaughterwasmostlikelynamedTheosebeia,thoughthisisbynomeansagreedupon.SomescholarsthinkshebecameanunwithhersisterMacrina.Basedonthefollowingevidence,Ithinkthatthisdaughter,Theosebeia,wasmarriedtoapriestnamedGregory.61GregoryofNazianzuswrote(p.113) Letter197toconsoleGregoryofNyssaonthedeathofhis“holyandblessedsister,”Theosebeia,“theconsortofapriest”(syzygos).Nazianzen’spraiseofheriseffulgentandproper.Hewrotetheletterlateinhislife,inthe380sor390s.InEpigrams161and164,healsopraisesdeceasedEmmeliaandherchild(daughter),Theosebeia,respectively:

Emmeliaisdead.Whatcanbesaid?Havinggiventolifethelightofsomanychildren,bothsonsanddaughtersmarriedandunmarried?Thisonealoneofmortalshadwonderfulchildrenandmanychildren;Threeofthemwerefamouspriestsandonewasthespouseofapriest,andtheothersiblingslikeanarmyofthebrightones.62

Andyou,Theosebia,childoffamousEmmelia,trulyspouseofgreatGregory,hereyoulieundertheholyground,supportofpiouswomen,youdepartedliferipeinyearsinfullness.63

FromallthreetextsweknowthatTheosebeiawasthechildofEmmelia,makingherthesisterofGregoryofNyssa,Basil,andMacrina.Wealsoknowthatshewasthesyzygos,commonlyknownasthewifeorconsort,ofapriestnamedGregory.InnoneofthesewritingsdoesNazianzensayunequivocallythatTheosebeiaisthewifeofGregoryofNyssa,butonlythatshewasmarriedtoapriestnamedGregory.Moreover,thename“Gregory”wasverycommon,anditseemsmostlikelythatthissisterwasmarriedtoapriestofthatname.

Asthefatherofsuchaprominentfamily,BasilmadesurethathiseldestdaughterMacrinawasbetrothedtoayoungmanfromanequallydistinguishedfamily.Andasadutifuldaughter,shewouldhavemarriedattheappropriateagehadtheyoungmannotdied.Intheinterestofhisdaughter’sfuture,herfatherwantedtofindheranotherfiancé,butMacrina


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outmaneuveredhisautocraticinterventionbyappealingtotheeternalworld.Shestatedthathertrueandonlyhusbandwasaliveinheaven,andshevowedthatshewouldsomedayafterherdeathjoinherbetrothed,butinthislifeshewouldremainasshewas.Suchreasoningconvincedherfather,andheallowedMacrinatodedicateherlifetovirginity.

WhenhediedshortlyaftertheirsonPeter’sbirth,approximately343,BasillefthiswifeEmmeliaawidow.Macrina,nowfatherless,wasthenaroundsixteenyearsoldandhadalreadybegunassumingalltheresponsibilitiesofPeter’scare,ataskthatrelievedhermotherconsiderably.ShockedbyBasil’s(p.114) death,bothMacrinaandEmmeliahadtoreorienttheirlives.Inthenextfewyears,Emmeliaexecutedtheresponsibilitiesofsole“rulerofthehousehold”quiteadmirably,managinghervastestatesandarrangingthemarriagesofherfourotherdaughters.Foreachofherfoursonsshesecuredafineeducationandconsolidatedaninheritance.64By345,Emmeliacompletedthephysicaltransitiontoanewlife.Emmeliahadmovedallthechildrenremainingathome(Macrina,Gregory,Naucratius,andPeter),togetherwiththeentirehouseholdofservantsandslaves,fromNeocaesareatotheirhugePontianestateinAnnesiontheIrisRiver.Duringthoseyearstheoldestson,Basil,wasanadolescentattendingschoolinCaesarea,wherehemethislifelongfriend,GregoryofNazianzus.

Inthenextdozenyears,Macrina’sstronginclinationstowardtheasceticlifeeffectedaspiritualtransitioninthehousehold,turningitintotwoasceticcommunities,onefemaleandonemale.65Itmustberememberedhere,however,that“inthefourthcentury,tothedegreethatsomemonasterieswereabletodistinguishthemselvesasauniquehouseholdform,thedistinctionwasaccomplishedbymeansofculturaltools,notlegaldistinctions.”66Naucratius,too,wasdrawntoasceticism,forgoingtheworldlyrewardsofhisinnategiftsofphysicalbeauty,athleticism,andsharpintelligenceforthespirituallifeofpoverty,simplicity,andprayer.Around352,heandhisslaveChrysaphiusleftthemainhouseandlivedintheforest,wheretheironlysustenancecamefromwhattheycouldhuntorgather.Naucratiusmadeithismissiontosharehisprovisionswithneedyoldpeopleinthearea.Inthemeantime,BasilhadgonetostudyinConstantinopleandthenAthens.GregoryandPeterremainedunderMacrina’stutelageuntilGregorywasoldenoughtogotoschoolinCaesarea,around348.

WhenBasilreturnedtoPontusin356–357,hefoundhismotherandsisterperforminghouseholdchoreslikewasherwomenandscullerymaids,rightalongwiththoseherememberedastheservantsandslaves.Healsofoundthateveryoneinthehouseholdnowworked,prayed,andatetogether.Therewasnolongeranydistinctionindress,rank,ordutiesinthehousehold,sinceMacrinahadconvincedhermotherthatthebetterlifewasoneofrenunciation,work,andprayer.Basilhadbeenbackashorttime,perhapsonlyayear,whenNaucratiusandtheslaveChrysaphiusdiedinatragicfishingaccident.67EmmeliawassoinconsolablethatMacrinaemergedastheonlystabilizinginfluenceinthefamily.Basileventuallyhonoredhisbrother’smemorybycontinuinghiswayof(p.115) lifeandsettingupanasceticabodenotfarfromhisfamily.ThereseemsnodoubtthatNaucratius’lifeanddeathhadinfluencedthatdecision.68

Asthefirststep,Basilwasbaptizedaroundthistime,atagetwenty-seven.Hewassuccessfulinurginghisbestfriend,GregoryofNazianzus,tojoinhiminhisretreatonthefamily


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propertyatAnnesi.Theyspentroughlytwoyearsthere,writingandcompilingthePhilokalia,theclassiccollectionofsayingsofOrigenandotherFathersforthoseinterestedinpursuingthespirituallife.By360,theclergyofCaesareaenlistedBasiltohelpthemintheAriandisputes,drawinghimoutofretreatintothepublicworldofecclesiasticalpolitics.In364,hewasordainedapriestbyEusebiusofCaesarea,butleftsoonafterbecauseofafightwiththebishop.69In370,hewaselectedbishopofCaesarea,theyearbeforeEmmelia’sdeath.Basilhimselfwouldliveonlyninemoreyears,buttheywerepackedfullofeventsthatheinstigated,accomplishmentsthathefoughtfor,andbrillianttheologicaltreatisesthathecreated.Basil’seffortsduringhisepiscopacychangedthecourseoftheChurchintheology,monasticism,institutionalphilanthropy,canonlaw,andrelationswiththeimperialcourt.

Basilhadanequallysignificantimpactonhisimmediatekin.ThoughMacrinahadtaughtbothherbrothersGregoryofNyssaandPeterintheiryoungeryears,GregorylaterwouldspeakofbothBasilandMacrinaashisgreatestteachersineverything.70WhenNyssenwasatschoolinCaesareainhislateteensorearlytwenties,hetraveledbackandforthfromAnnesi.ItwasononeofhistripshomethathismotherprevaileduponhimtoattendthepanegyrisfortheFortyMartyrsattheshrineshehadjustbuiltatIbora,around355.Gregoryagreedtoattend,veryreluctantly.Tohisgreatsurpriseandterror,hewasscoldedseverelybytheFortyMartyrsinadream,sincehehadslippedawayfromtheliturgyandfellasleepinthegarden.71TheincidentwiththeFortyMartyrshadaprofoundeffectonhim,influencingtherestofhislife.Andalthoughhedoesnotdirectlysaytheincidentwasthecause,withinapproximatelytwoyearshewasbaptized.

AfterGregoryfinishedhisschoolinginCaesarea,hepursuedacareerasarhetorician,fromapproximately358to365,andwasalsoordainedareader.HisfriendNazianzenupbraidedhimforchoosingrhetoricoveralifeintheChurch.Nyssenobviouslyhadsomeambivalenceaboutsuchadecisionpreviously,(p.116) sinceBasilmentionsthathewantedhisbrothertojoinhiminthemonastery.72Infact,NyssennevermentionshisinvolvementattheretreatinPontusinanyofhiswritings.73WhatiscertainisthatMacrinafinallyconvincedhimtoabandonhissecularcareerandretiretoBasil’smonastery,around365,rightaroundthetimeBasilwenttoCaesareapermanently.Uptothispoint,theadultGregoryhadbeentheleastinvolvedinhisfamily’sexperimentsinmonasticliving.74Butonemustrememberthathehadbeentherefromthebeginning,andthroughouthisboyhoodhewitnessedtheentireevolutionofthesetwofamilymonasteries.

AlongtraditionclaimsthatGregorywasmarriedduringhiscareerasarhetorician,buttheevidenceisinconclusive.75Thestrongestadvocatesforthispositioneventhinkthathiswife’snamewas“Theosebeia,”positingthatitisNyssen’swifewhoisthesubjectofNazianzen’sLetter197.Buttheletterdoesnotsaythis.AsweexaminedbeforeinthecontextoftheidentityofTheosebeiaasasisterofthesiblings,intheletterNazianzencallsherNyssen’ssisterandthewife,orconsort,ofapriest.Whatismore,Epigram164praisesTheosebeia,wifeofapriestnamedGregory,asthechildofEmmelia,notherdaughter-in-law.AndthisTheosebeiadieswhenNyssenisold.IfthisTheosebeiawasnot(p.117) Nyssen’ssisterbuthiswife,NazianzenwouldhavetakeneveryopportunitytoidentifyGregoryofNyssaasthatverypriestandhusbandofTheosebeia.AndatthetimeNazianzenwrotetheletterandthetwoepigrams,Nyssenwasnotapriest;hewasalreadyordainedthebishopofNyssa.YetifNyssenhadhadawife,sheprobablystillwouldhavebeenalivein365,whenheleftthe


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careerinrhetoric;andthusitisoddthatthereisnomentionofher.Noristhereanymentionofher,herearlydeath,oranyarrangementstobemadeforherwhenhelefthiscareerandenteredthemonasticlife.IfGregoryofNyssawasmarried,andIdonotknowthathewas,wesimplydonotknowthenameofhiswife.

GregoryofNyssawatchedhisbrother’smeteoricriseintheChurchtobecomethebishopofCaesarea.ButNyssenalsounwittinglybecameapawninBasil’sstrategiesagainsttheAriansandtheimperialcourtwhenBasilforcedhisyoungerbrothertobecomebishopoftheobscurevillageofNyssain372.Duringthefirstfiveyearsofhisepiscopalcareer,Nyssenunfortunatelyfellvictimtothepro-ArianpoliciesofEmperorValens.Twicehewasbroughtuponfraudulentcharges;andin374,hewasdeposedandbanishedtoSeleucia.Itwasduringthethreeyearsoftheseclusionofhisexile(374–377)thathewashismostproductive,writingsomeofhismostimportanttheologicaltracts.76

GregoryreturnedtohisseeafterValens’deathin378.ButhewouldspendlittletimeinNyssa,sincehewouldsoonbecomeaneffectiverepresentativeoftheOrthodoxpositionatmanydifferentcouncilsandchurchesduringthenextfewyears.Gregory’srecognitionasanOrthodoxstatesmaninbothimperialandecclesiasticalcirclesspreadfarbeyondAsiaMinor.ThisismostevidentinthedynamicleadershiproleheplayedintheproceedingsattheCouncilofConstantinoplein381.

Duringthisperiod,bothBasilandMacrinadiedinclosesuccession—379and380,respectively.TheirdeathsaffectedGregorydeeply,andhewrotememorialsforeachofhissiblings.TheLifeofSaintMacrinaisamasterpiece,fornotonlydoeshehonorMacrinaintheworkbuthealsopreservespreciousdetailsoftheentirefamily’sstory.Gregory’saccomplishmentsinthenextfifteenyearsofhislifedemonstratehowsuccessfullyhetookontheroleofresponsibleleaderafterhissiblings’deaths.Hediedin395.

(p.118) TheevidenceforNyssen’sinteractionsandinfluenceovertheyoungestsibling,Peter,issparseandcomeslateinbothoftheirlives.PeterstayedwithinthefamilyuntilBasilandMacrinadied.Hewouldhavebeenonlytwoyearsold(atthemost)whenhisfamilymovedtothecountryestate,soheliterallygrewupinthemonasticenvironmentofAnnesi.WhileunderthecarefulwatchofMacrina,Petermodeledhimselfafterhisbrothers,NaucratiusandBasil,andeventuallyenteredthemonasticlifeatthecompound.HeneverleftPontus.AfterBasilwenttoCaesarea,Peterbecamethesuperiorofhisbrother’smonasticcompound;andapparentlyevenwhileNyssenwasthere.PeterwasordainedapriestbyBasilin370,andheremainedinAnnesi.

Duringthefamineof368–369,Peterandhiscommunityorganizedasystemoffooddistribution.Peter’sconsiderableinheritancefromhisfamilymusthaveallowedthisaidtoreachasmanypeopleaspossible.SoonafterMacrina’sdeathin381,hisbrotherGregoryofNyssasawtheopportunitytomakePeterabishop.GregorywascalledtoSebasteiatosettleanecclesiasticaldisputeovertheselectionofthenextbishop.WithGregory’sconsiderableinfluencePeterwaselectedbishopofSebasteia.PeterdiedafewyearsbeforeGregory,sometimein392–393.

ImportantDynamicsinTheirFamily

Fromthewrittenevidenceofthesiblings’relationships,BasilandGregorywereclose,and


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MacrinaandGregorywereevencloser.ButnoletterordocumentindicatescommunicationbetweenMacrinaandBasilafterheleftforCaesarea.Basil’ssilenceonhisextraordinaryoldersisterMacrinaisasshockingasitisnoisy,leavingmuchroomforspeculationabouttheirpossibleestrangement.GregoryclaimsthatitwasMacrinawhostraightenedoutthearrogant,youngBasilwhenhereturnedfromAthens.Infact,thisistheonlyreferencetoanyinteractionbetweenthem.MaybeinBasil’sviewshewasthebossy,omniscient,oldersister.AndyetGregoryunequivocallypurportsthatMacrinaguidedBasiltobecomeanascetic.77Suchinfluenceisbynomeanscertain,ofcourse,sincehecouldaseasilyhavemodeledhimselfontwootherasceticswhowereinfluentialinhislife:EustathiusofSebasteia,amentorofBasil’sandapioneerinasceticism;andhisownbrother,Naucratius.Whateverthecase,whenNyssenmakessuchaclaimaboutMacrina’sinfluenceonBasil,hebothhonoredhisrecentlydeceasedsiblingsandbroughtthetwotogether.Gregory’sclaimhadanadditionaladvantageofprotectingBasil’smemoryandespeciallyofexcisingEustathiusofSebasteia’sinfluenceonaspectsofBasil’stheology(p.119) andasceticism.Basil’sfriendshipwithEustathiushadendedbitterlyin373,afterEustathiusrepeatedlyaccusedBasilofSabellianism.78

WhileitremainsanunsettlingfactthatBasilnevermentionshisoldersisterinanyletterorextanttract,Gregory’srelationshipwiththeirsisterissharplydifferent.MacrinawasabufferforGregory,evenarefugeforhiminthefaceofhisgreat“masterandteacher,”brotherBasil.Inherlifelongroleasteacherandspiritualcenterofthefamily,MacrinaservedasasoundingboardforGregory.Heextolsherwisdom,care,andpatienceinboththeLifeofSaintMacrinaandOntheSoulandResurrection.HisrelianceonMacrina’spowerfulsteadinessanddevotionisclearinLetter19:“Mysisterwasmyteacheroflife,mymotheraftermymother,sincesuchboldnessofspeechdidshehavetowardsGodthatshewasatowerofstrengthandashieldofcontentment,justastheScripturessay.”79

TheintensityofNyssen’srelationshipwithhisimpressiveolderbrotherbynomeansprecludedhisrespectforBasil.Throughtheircorrespondenceandinthecourseoftheirinteractions,thetwoseemgenuinelyfondofeachother,althoughtheywereforeverunequal.EventhoughhemadeGregorybishopofNyssain371,Basil’scorrespondenceexposesthefactthathehadlittleconfidenceinGregory’sadministrativeacumen.Basilwasheavy-handedinhisorderstohisyoungerbrotherandinhischastisementsofthewayheconductedbusiness.Forhispart,GregoryseemstohavebeenconstantlyoverwhelmedbyBasil.HealternatedbetweenaweandresentmentofBasil,bridlingunderhisauthoritarianism,havingnorecoursebutMacrina’spatientear.

ThefollowingepisodesillustratethenearlylimitlessextenttowhichBasilandGregorycouldstretchtheirbondsofkinship.In371,BasilwasbroughtbacktohisownfamilyowingtothegriefhefeltatEmmelia’sdeathandthemisunderstandinghehadwithhismother’sbrother,UncleGregory,abishopinCaesarea.80BasilhadopenlycampaignedtobeconsecratedasbishopofCaesareatheyearbefore.Manylocalbishopshadopposedhisconsecration,andUncleGregorywasoneofthem.Untilthen,UncleGregoryhadbeenquitegracioustohistalentednephew,helpinghimsincehisarrivalinCaesareaasapriest.

Inanattempttohealthefamilydissension,GregoryofNyssaforgedthreelettersofreconciliationtoBasilinthenameofUncleGregory.Theirolduncle(p.120) foundoutabout


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thefirstletterandrepudiatedit,embarrassingBasilsomuchthathewishedfortheearthtoswallowhimup.WhenBasilfoundoutthattheothertwowereforgeriesaswell,hewasjustifiablyoutraged.HescoldshisbrotherGregoryinLetter58bysaying,“HowstupiddoyouthinkIamthatIwouldfallforthesamerusethreetimes?Iwriteattackingyoursimplicity,whichIseeplainlytobeneitherwhatgenerallybecomesaChristianmannorisappropriatetothepresentemergency.”81Succinctlyhetellshisbrother,“Mindyourownbusiness,sinceyouareanunworthyministerofthingssogreat.”82

WhatismostinterestingisthatBasiljustifiesupbraidingGregoryongroundsoftheirbeingrelated.Hetakesthebondsofkinshipveryseriously.“Yououghttohavekeptinmindthatyouaremybrother,andhavenotyetforgottenthetiesofnature,anddonotregardmeinthelightofanenemy,forIhaveenteredonalifewhichiswearingoutmystrength.”83HeblamesGregoryforwarringwithhim,insteadofcomingtohisaidandsharinginhistroubles.Evenagoodfriendwouldhavedoneasmuch.ButfromBasil’spointofviewGregory’sactionswereevenworse,sincetheyshowednofamilyloyaltyorsolidarity.HeimpugnsGregorymosteffectivelywithaquotefromEcclesiasticus:“Kindredandhelpersareagainsttimesoftrouble.”84

BasilbaseshisstrongestargumentsaboutkinshipinLetter59,whichhewritestohisunclebegginghimnottocuthimoff.Basil’sardorexposeshowmuchheprizedhisuncle’saffections,asheremindshimthathehad“alwaysbeenasafathertohim.”OneisleftwiththeimpressionthatUncleGregoryhaddemonstratedmorecareforhimallhislife,likefathertoson,thantheirkinship,uncletonephew,wouldhavedemanded.85

TheentireepisodeapparentlycametoanendwithLetter60tohisuncle.Theletterhasatoneofoverallreliefthatrelationsbothwithhisuncleandhisbrotherweremended.HereportshowhappyhewastoreceivehisbrotherwhobroughtanotherletterfromUncleGregory—thisonelegitimate—inajovial,rough-and-tumbleway:“Whynot,sinceheismybrotherandsuchabrother?”86NorhadBasillostanyaffectionforyoungerGregory:“GodforbidthatIshouldeversofeelastoforgetthetiesofnatureandbeatwarwiththosewhoarenearanddeartome….Ineednotaddtomylifeanydolefulepisodeofquarrel(p.121)betweenkithandkin.”87BasilsealsthelightheartedintroductionbyrequestingUncleGregory’scontinuedsolicitations;alongwithhisprayers,heasksfor“careformeinallthings,asyourownrelative.”88Basilalsohopesforaconversationwithhisuncle,buthewouldneedaletterconfirmingit,sincehecannotdependonhisbrotherasamessenger,sinceGregoryhadfabricatedsomuchbefore!89

Notalloftheinteractionsbetweenthebrotherswerenegative,nordotheyallreflectBasil’spressuringofGregory.Sometimeinthelate360s,whenGregorywasstilllivinginthefamilymonasticestatesinPontus,BasilaskedhimtowriteOnVirginity.90Thistreatisewasthefruitoflivelytheologicalexchangesbetweenthetwobrothers.Letter38ofBasiltoGregoryisaremarkabletestimonytothisexchange.Itrehearsesveryclearlythedifferencebetweenhypostasisandousia,“lestyoufallintosimilarerror.”91ThatBasilcontinuedtorelyunwaveringlyonGregory’stheologicalperspicacitywhileseekingtostrengthenhisbrother’sweakpoliticalskillsinordertoadvancetheOrthodoxcauseisabundantlyclearinhiscorrespondence.92TheperilsofsuchasituationarealltooobviousinLetter100,writtenin372,inwhichhebemoansthefactthatGregoryinallhis“simplicity”summonedasynodin


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Ancyra,unknowinglythwartingallBasil’sefforts.93

Basil’slettersshowmuchlessannoyancetowardhisbrotherafterGregoryisexiledbytheAriansin374.Manyofthoseletters,infact,revealabrotherlyprotectivenesstowardGregory.AcaseinpointisLetter225,which,amongmanyotherthings,explainsthereasonsthatGregory’strialwasdelayed,apparentlybecauseof“irregularities”inGregory’sconsecrationandhisallegedembezzlementofchurchfunds.Basildefendshisbrotherstaunchly,explainingthatheissufferinggreatlyfromaterriblefluandfromkidneydisease,chronicfromyouth,aboutwhichonlyabrotherwouldknow.94Letter215explainswhyhisGod-belovedbrotherGregorycouldnotpossiblygotoRomeinthewinter.Notonlyishean“unsuitableenvoytoDamascus”(acloserdestinationthanRome),heis“tooinexperiencedinecclesiasticalaffairs”tohandlethemachinationsofthosewhoarewily,ingenuous,andarrogant.95Letters231,237,and(p.122) 239allshowhowtirelesslyBasilworkedonGregory’sbehalfwhenhewasexiled.Throughoutthemall,Basilrevealsoutrageattheinjusticeofthecharges,respectforhisbrother’smaturecourage,andprotectivecareforGregory’swell-being.96

Basil’sideasabouttheboundariesofkinshipareperhapsbestexpressedinhisletterabouthissyntrophos,translatedclumsilyas“foster-brother.”97Basilwrotethislettersometimeinthelate360stoanunnamedofficialonbehalfofhisfosterbrother,whowasthesonofhisnurseandwithwhomhegrewup.SomemisunderstandingwithBasil’snatalhouseinPontusoccasionedtheletter,sinceBasilisquiteconcernedthathisfosterbrotherstillbeabletoeitherliveinitorreceivebenefitfromit,probablyfromrentmoney.Basilwantstomakesurethattheofficial“sparethehouse”forbothhisfosterbrotherandhimself,sincetheybothstillgettheirsupportfromthenatalhouse.Inaddition,Basilstipulatesthattheslaves,whichhadbeenbequeathedtothefosterbrotherbyhisparentsforhisuseandbenefit,shouldreverttoBasilafterthefosterbrothershoulddie.Basil’sletterrevealsauniquesituationaboutsomeonewhowaspartofthehousehold,andbyextension,partofthefamily.

FamilyofGregoryofNazianzus

ThepaternalgrandparentsofGregoryofNazianzuswerenotChristiansbutHypsistarians.(seetable3.1)ThesectworshippedtheGod“thehighest,”or“hypsistos,”andwasrathercommonthroughoutthenortherncoastalregionsoftheBlackSeaandtheBosphorus.TheirideasaboutGodderivedfromasyncretizedmonotheism,combiningelementsoftheCappadociancultofZeusSabazioswiththeJewishGodYahwehSabaoth.HypsistariansaccordinglyamalgamatedreligiouspracticesfrompaganismandJudaism.Whiletheyrejectedidolsandpagansacrifices,theyworshippedfireandlightandrefusedthetitle“Father”forGod.TheyobservedsomeJewishlaws,includingthoseregardingtheSabbathandcertainfoodlaws,yettheyrejectedcircumcision.98GregoryofNazianzusdoesnotmentionhisgrandparents’nameswhenhedescribesthefamilyhistoryofhisbelovedfather,ElderGregory.Thisisperhapsnotsurprising,sinceElderGregorygrewupaHypsistarian.

GregoryofNazianzus’maternalgrandparentswerePhiltatusandGorgonia.99Theyhadthreechildren—Amphilochius,Gregory,andNonna—thelatterof(p.123) whomwouldbecomeGregory’smother.100AthoughGregorymakesrathervaguereferencestotheChristianancestryofhismotherNonna,hedoesnotpursuetheissue.101WhenElderGregorymarriedNonna,shewasChristianandhewasaHypsistarian.Itisdifficulttoimagine


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thecircumstancesunderwhichaChristianfatherwouldhavearrangedamarriageforhisdaughterwithaHypsistarian.Itis,therefore,likelythatonlyoneofherparentswasChristian.102Itisequallypossiblethatthepersecutionhadsomethingtodowithhermarriagetoanon-Christian,orthatthemarriagealliancesobenefitedPhiltatusfinanciallythatNonnawasinstructedtocompletelyoverlookherfuturehusband’sreligion.

Inanycase,themarriageofGregoryandNonnatookplaceinthemid-tolate-320s,andtheylivedthereafterinthesmalltownofNazianzus,Cappadocia.103NonnaandElderGregoryhadthreechildren—Gorgonia,Gregory,andCaesarius—borninthatorder,withGregory’sbirthdatesometimebetween328and331.Duringtheearlyyearsofhermarriage,Nonnaworkedatherhusband’sconversiontoChristianityslowlyandsteadily,“likewaterconstantlystrikingarock.”104Herhusbandwasbaptizedatagefifty,whentheirsonGregorywasaboutfiveyearsold.ElderGregory’smother,Gorgonia,disinheritedhersonforawhilebecausehehadconverted.105RightafterBishopLeontiusofCaesareabaptizedElderGregory,heconsecratedhimbishopofNazianzus.ElderGregorylefthispostasatownadministratorandtookuphisnewpositionwithexemplarypatienceandenduringdevotiontotheChristiancommunity.IntheannalsoftheChurch,Nonnawouldendupbeingoneofthelast“episcopalwives.”106

GregoryofNazianzus’parentsrealizedthattheirsonwasexceptionallybrightwhenhewascompletingthefirstlevelofhisstudiesinCaesarea,wherehefirstmetBasil.TheysentGregoryofftoAthensforfurtherschoolingaround347,andthenontoCaesareainPalestineandAlexandria.GregorythrivedintheintellectualenvironmentatAthens,defendinghisfriendBasil,sparringwithhisclassmateJulian(thefutureemperor),anddevelopinghislifelongpassionforthesecluded,scholarlylife.GregorystayedinAthensforroughlytenyears.AtBasil’sinsistence,GregoryreturnedtoCappadociatojoinhimatthe(p.124)retreatinPontus.HestayedwithBasilforthreeyearsonly,sinceElderGregory’spoorhealthrequiredthathissonreturnin360toNazianzustohelphim.

GregoryofNazianzusmusthavebeenbaptizedduringthisperiodbecausehisfatherordainedhimapriestonChristmasdayin361,notlongafterhereturnedfromAthens.ElderGregoryseemedtohaveconsideredhisownvocationafamilybusinessandthushopedhissonwouldsucceedhimfirstaspriestandthenasbishop,inakindofChristianversionofRomancurialresponsibilities.Horrified,GregoryfledtoPontusuntilEaster.Whenhereturned,hedeliveredanapologeticsermononEasterdaytohisfather’scongregation,explaininghisflightinbiblicalterms,exposinghisownfeelingsofunworthinesstobeapriest.107

SuchpatternswouldcharacterizeGregory’sbehaviortherestofhislife.SeveralmoretimesGregoryfelthimselfburdenedwithresponsibilitieshedidnotwanttoshoulderandthatwerefoistedonhimbyothers—eitherfairlyorunfairly—whobelievedhehadleadershipqualities.Whetherintruthhehadthesequalities,hecertainlystroveconsistentlythroughouthislifetoproveotherwise.UnlikehisfriendBasil,Gregorythrivedinsolitude;hewantedonlytostudy,write,andpray.AsGregoryputit,“Mygreatestbusinessalwaysistokeepfreefrombusiness.”108BasilneverreallyunderstoodGregory’ssensitiveproclivities.Toservehisownpoliticalpurposes,in370BasilforciblyconsecratedGregoryasbishopofSasima,amiserablevillage.Gregorywasagainastoundedanddismayed,feelingutterlybetrayedby


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hisfriend.Althoughhedidnotphysicallyrunawaythistime,andhewasbarredfromtakingpossessionofhisseebythereigningArianbishopAnthimos,Gregoryalwaysdidhisbesttostayoutoftheadministrativelimelight.Eventhoughhewasabishop,hespentthenextfouryearshelpinghisailingfatherwiththehomeparishinNazianzus,acceptinghispriestlyresponsibilitiesintermsofthefamilybusiness:“Forsweetitistoinheritafather’stoils,andthisflockismorefamiliarthanastrangeandforeignone.”109

Afterbothhisfatherandmotherdiedin374,Gregorywasfreeofparentalobligations,andherelishedhislifeofseclusionattheshrineofSt.TheclainSeleucia.However,hisscholarlypursuitstherewereeventuallyinterruptedin379.TheOrthodoxclergyofConstantinople,backedbyEmperorTheodosiusI,prevailedonhimtocometoConstantinopleastheirbishopanderadicatetheArianismthere.Gregorybenttotheirpressure,buthisstayasbishopwas(p.125) neithersuccessfulinriddingthecityofAriansnorinquellingthesharpfactionalismattheCouncilofConstantinoplein381.HewillinglyresignedhispostthatsameyearandretiredtothepeaceandquietofNazianzus,closetotheshrineofthemartyrs.There,hespenttheyearsuntilhisdeath,in394,writingmanyletters,poems,andepigrams.

Gregory’soldersister,Gorgonia,wasmarriedtoamannamedAlypiusprobablyearlyinthe340s,whenGregorywasatschoolinCaesarea.ItseemsGregorydidnotknowhimverywell,whichisrathersurprising.110EventhoughGorgoniawouldhaveleftherownfamilyforherhusband’shouse,sheandAlypiuscouldnothavelivedtoofarfromNazianzus,sinceherparentswereabletobeatherhousewhenshedied.GorgoniawasraisedaChristian,butshewasnotbaptizeduntilimmediatelybeforeherdeathin369.WhetherAlypiuscamefromasimilarreligiousbackgroundisunknown,butGregorywritesthatasshelayonherdeathbed,Gorgoniaconvincedherhusbandtobebaptized.

Alypiuswasarichlandowner,andGorgoniahadalargehouseholdtomanage.SheandAlypiushadthreedaughters—Alypiana,Eugenia,andNonna.AlypianamarriedNicobulusaround365,soGorgonialivedlongenoughprobablytohaveseenatleastonegrandchild.Nonna’sgrandchildrenandgreat-grandchildrenweremorethanlikelyfrequentguestsattheirgrandparents’houseinNazianzus.Astheymatured,Gregorytookonapaternalroleforhisniecesandtheirchildren.111

Gorgonia’slifestyleandaccomplishmentsbearthedistinctmarkofNonna’sinfluence.HerdaughterwaseducatedinScriptureandthefaith.ShemadesureherownchildrenandhusbandpracticedChristianpiety.Gorgoniacultivatedmodestyandsimplicity,qualitiesthatcouldnothavecomeeasilygivenherclass,wealth,andstatusasanoblematron.112Shewasgenerouswithtimeandmoney,evenofferingherhouseasaccommodationtomany.Gorgoniabalancedherobligationsofwife,mother,andmanagerwithherdisciplinedlifeofChristianpiety,allwithinthecontextofagrandestate.

CaesariuswastheyoungestofGorgonia’sandGregory’ssiblingsandwasprobablybornsometimebetween332and335.AfterhefinishedhisschoolinginCaesarea,hisparentssenthimtoAlexandria,sincehewantedtobecomeadoctorandthatcityhadthebestsciencefaculty.CaesariusreturnedtoConstantinoplein357,enticedbyasparklingcareerinthenewcapital.Fromallevidence,emperorConstantiuswaswillingtodojustaboutanythingtokeephimthere.Buthisolderbrother’swheedlingcausedCaesariustochangehismind(p.126)andtoreturntoNazianzus.Gregorylatergloated,quitegratifiedthathisbrother


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“preferredhimtotheEmperor.”113

Caesarius’stayinNazianzusdidnotlastlong.Gregorycouldnotconvincehimthathewaspursuingvainambitionsandglory,andCaesariusleftshortlyforastellarpositioninthecapital.WhenJulianbecameemperor,GregoryworriedevenmoreaboutCaesarius’chosencareerandthenegativeinfluencesofcourtlife.ThecombinedpressuresofJulian’santi-ChristianpoliciesandGregory’spowersofpersuasionforcedCaesariustoreconsider.

FortunatelyforCaesarius,Juliandiedsoonafterthis,andCaesariuswasabletotakeupEmperorValens’offertobecomequaestorinBithynia.Caesariuswasacultivatedmaninthehighestcircleofthecourt,andinashorttimehebecamequiterich.Heprobablywouldeventuallyhavemarriedhadhenotdiedsuddenlyofanillnessin369.HehadbeenbaptizedatEasterofthatyear.ElderGregoryandNonnamadeallthearrangementstoburytheirson,andstoicallyNonnaforcedherselftoshownogrief,evenwearingherbrightestclothesfortheoccasion.114Addingtothissadness,sheandElderGregorywouldattendtheirdaughterGorgonia’sfunerallaterthatyear.

ImportantDynamicsinNazianzen’sFamily

GregoryofNazianzus’relationshiptohisparentsandsiblingsisdifficulttoteaseoutofhiswritings,sincehewroteverylittletooraboutthemwhentheywerealive.Theintriguingevidence,nevertheless,allowsusthefollowingobservations.Hewasutterlydevotedtohisparentsandmadespecialaccommodationsatleastthreetimesinhislifeeithertoworkwiththemortotakecareofthem.WhenBasilkeptremindinghimthathehadpromisedtostayyear-roundinAnnesiatthemonasticretreat,Nazianzenrepliedthathemustspendhalftheyearwithhisparents.SuchadutywasadivinecommandmentandallowedhimtobreakhispromisetoBasil.“Onelawprevailedagainstanother;Imeanthelawwhichbidsushonourourparentsoverpoweredthelawoffriendshipandintercourse….Ishallbewithyouhalfthetimeandhalfofityouwillbewithme,thatwemayhavethewholeincommon…andsoitwillbearrangedinsuchawaythatmyparentswillnotbegrieved,andyetIshallgainyou.”115NazianzentooktheMosaicinjunctiontohonorone’sparentsquiteseriouslyanduseditasthebasisforallhisinteractionswithhisrelatives.(p.127) Theinjunctiontotendone’sparentsorspouseinoldagewas“writteninthebookofChrist.”116

Nazianzenspentagreatdealofhisadultlifewithhisfather,andhisgenuineaffectionforhimisobvious.ElderGregorywas,ofcourse,setapartfromhissonthroughvenerableage,hisauthorityashisfather,andhisauthorityasabishop.Yetasason,Nazianzendidnotenvyhisfatheranddidnotcompetewithhim.Hisfather’spractical,hands-onqualityofministeringtohisparishwouldeludeGregoryallofhislife,althoughhebenefitedfromhisfather’sconstantdevotiontohisflockinNazianzus.ElderGregoryseemstohavebeenaustere,simple,andoccasionally“unsympathetic,evenbrutal.”117Hissonwasmuchmoreintrospective,sensitive,studious,andattimestooworriedexcessivelyaboutothers’opinionsofhimself.YetNazianzen’sevidentanddeep-seatedloveforhisfathermakestheirdifferenceslesssignificant.NazianzenfledtoPontusforfourmonthsafterhisfatherordainedhim,butthatescapehadmuchmoretodowithhisqualmsaboutbecomingapriestthanapermanentriftwithhisfather.Inshort,hegotoverhisfrustrationswithhisfather.Allhiswritingsbetraythatfact.“Ihavebeenoverpoweredbytheoldageofmyfather,andtousemoderateterms,thekindlinessofmyfriend….ThereforeInowconsenttoshareinthecaresofmyexcellent


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father,likeaneaglet,notquitevainlyflyingclosetoamightyandsoaringeagle.”118

Letter7,writtentohisbrotherCaesariusin362,givesarare,wonderfulglimpseatthefamily’sdynamicsduringacrisis.There,GregoryofNazianzuschastiseshisbrotherforbeingemployedbytheapostateEmperorJulianatthecourtinConstantinople.Gregoryisquiteexplicitthatitishewhohastodealwiththeirfather’sintensedistressthatCaesariusisservingEmperorJulian,theenemyoftheChurch.Whatishetodowiththeirfatherwhoissoupsetthatheiseven“disgustedwithlifeitself?”119

Byvirtueoftheirfather’sepiscopaloffice,Caesarius’jobcouldnotbeconcealedasaprivatefamilymatter.Infact,thewholecommunitywasbandyingaboutrumorsandblandishments.Asabishop,ElderGregoryhadaverypublicroleintheircommunity.ThefactthatCaesarius,sonofthebishop,wasservingthegodlessEmperorhadbecomeapublicmatterinNazianzus.ItisnowonderthatElderGregorywasupsetandhumiliated.ElderGregorymusthavereliedheavilyonNazianzen’semotionalsupportatthattime,sincethelatterexplains(p.128) thathe“consolesandcomfortshimasbestIcan.”120GregoryrepeatedlystresseshowheassuredhisfatherthatCaesariuswouldreturntohissensesandresignsuchadishonorableposition.

TheaffairofCaesarius’employmentatJulian’scourtshowswhatthefamilydefinedasacceptableinrelationships,whatwasdemandedbykinship,andwhatwasprohibited.AfterdetailingalltheharmCaesariuswascausingtheirfather,Gregorysavesthebestforlast—Nonna’slikelyreaction.Gregorywasutterlydevotedtohismother,statingquiteassuredlyinseveralplacesthathewasherfavoritechild.121ButGregorywroteverylittleaboutNonnaoutsidethecontextoffuneralrhetoric,andhispurposethereistodetailherextravagantpietyandgenerosity.Nonnadominatedhermarriageandconductedthehouseholdwithsuchparticulardiscretionthatheractivitieswereundetectabletotheoutsideworld.ItisclearthatNonna’sidealssetthestandardforGregory’sownbehavior,andhedidhisutmosttoliveuptoherexpectationsthroughouthislife.GregorytookcareofNonnaduringherillnessbeforeshediedin374.Onthatoccasion,heexplainedtoBasilwhyhecouldnotvisithim,“ForIamsittingatthesideofmydearlady,mymotherwhohasalreadybeensufferingforalongtimefromsickness.IfIwouldnotleaveherinanuncertainstate,pleaseknowIwouldnotdeprivemyselfofyourcompany.”122

Thus,agreatdealwasatstakeasCaesariusjeopardizedtheentirefamily’sreputationandriskedalienatingtheirmother,Nonna.GregoryshowsthatheproceededwithcautionashenearlythreatensCaesarius.Gregoryconfessesthattheywerehidingtruthfromtheirmother:“untilnowwehavekeptthesecretthroughmanyinventivediversions,”implyingthattheirstrategiesofdeceptioncouldnotgoonindefinitely.123HedeclaresthatwereNonnatoknowthetruthaboutCaesarius,shewouldbeutterlyinconsolable,“sinceasawomansheissmallmindedandthroughhergreatpietyisotherwiseunabletobalancesuchmattersandfeelings!”124

Suchclaimsabouthismotherarestartlingbecausetheyarecompletelyoutofcharacter.ToattributetoNonnaa“smallmind”owingtohergenderisarhetoricaltropeintendedtomakeCaesariuscapitulatetoGregory’swishes.SuchaclaimcontradictsallthatGregoryeverwroteaboutNonna.Hequicklyregroups,however,andthreatensamorefrighteningand


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truthfulscenario.(p.129) EssentiallyhesaysthatthereisnopredictingwhatNonnamightdo,basedonhergreatpiety.ThisisamuchmorepowerfulimpetusthatCaesariuswouldcertainlyrecognizeinkeepingwithhismother’scharacterthantheoffhandedcliché,“smallmindofawoman.”

Whatismore,bothhersonswouldhaveknownimmediatelythattheirmotherwouldfinditimpossibletobearthepublichumiliationcausedbyCaesarius’positionatcourt.Discretioninpublic,basedonhergreatpiety,wasavirtuemostrareandhard-won.ItwasoneNonnahadcultivatedsteadilyallherlife.BothhersonsknewthatCaesarius’careerwasjeopardizingtheirmother’sreputationandthehonorofthefamily.

Finally,theletteralsoexposesGregory’srelationshiptohisyounger,moreurbanebrother.ThereisnodoubtthatGregorywasveryproudofCaesarius’accomplishments;butinacceptingapositionwithJulian,Caesarius’ambitionhadputhiminaperiloussituation.GregorypointsouttoCaesariusthathehadlostallsightoftheconsequencesofhisactions,throughhisowngreedydesireformoneyandposition.Notonlywasheharminghisfamily,hewasalsolosinghimself.Caesariuswassoblindedbygreedthathewasinaprecariousdilemma,andbothoutcomeswerebleak.Inbothcases,JulianwouldpressurehimwithsuchintensitythathewouldeitherbedemotedtoaninferiorpositionorabandonChristianitytoadvancehisowncareer.Whateverhappened,Caesariuswouldlose,andinthelattercasehewouldlosehissoulforeternity,“hav[ing]ashareinthesmoke,ifnotthefire.”125Gregoryspeaksfranklyfromthebeginningoftheletter,wastingnotimeonpolitediscourse.Attheendoftheletter,Gregoryrealizesthatwhathehaswrittenmayangerhisbrother,buthecertainlyisconfidentthattheirownfraternalbonddependsonhiscandor.

Gregory’sonlyotherlettertohisbrotheris,inretrospect,alostopportunitytoshowerhimwithgenuinebrotherlyaffection.In368,CaesariushadmiraculouslyescapedfromanearthquakethatdestroyedhisentirehouseholdinNicaea.Gregory’sletterisashort,boringsermonpreachingthathisbrothershouldlookupontheearthquakeasalearningexperience,anaturalafflictionthatshouldbringhimclosertoGod.ItshouldserveasanoccasionforhisthankfulnesstoGodnotonlyforpreservinghimbutalsoforteachinghimthatallthethingsonearthpassaway.This,ofcourse,maybetrue,butinthiscontextitobscuresanywarmemotion,spontaneousrelief,orgenuinethankfulnessGregorymayhavefeltthatCaesariuswasalive!Heevenadmitsthisattheend,writing,“PerhapsIseemtoyousomewhatofabore,bywritingtoyousooftenonthesamesubject,andyouwillthinkmyletterapiecenotof(p.130) exhortationbutofostentation,soenoughofthis.”126Boringexhortationandostentationitcertainlyis.Hehintsthathehaswrittenseveraltimestohisbrother,butperhapsCaesariuswastoobusyrecoveringfromtheearthquaketorespond.AndGregoryalsomayhavefeltguiltythathecouldnotleavehisparentsinordertogohelpCaesarius.OnlyinthelasttwosentencesdoesGregorypermithimselftheslightestemotion,“IwishespeciallythatImightbewithyouandshareyourjoyatyourpreservation,andtotalkoverthesematterslateron.”

Hemustsoonhaveregrettedhisreserveandpreachiness,foronlyafewmonthslaterCaesariuswoulddiequiteyoung.Then,Gregorycaptureshissadnessandunabashedloveinwords:“YouescapedtheroaringmenaceofthecruelearthquakewhenNicaeawasleveledwiththeground,anddidperishbypainfuldisease.Oforyourchasteyouth,andyour


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wisdom,beautifulCeasarius.”127AndtohisoldschoolchumPhilagriusheexpressedhisdeepestgrief:“IdonothaveCaesariusanymore.Ishallsaysomething,eveniftheemotionisnotconsonantwiththephilosophiclife.IdeeplyloveCaesarius,andeverythingIseeremindsmeofhim,Iembracehimandgreethimwithakiss,andIthinkIseehim,gooutwithhim,andtalkwithhim.”128Gregory’ssixteenemotionalepigramstoCaesariusrevealprofoundloveforhisbrother.129

ItisnoexaggerationtosaythatconventionalbiologicalkinshipandallitimplieswasanextremelypowerfulforceinGregoryofNazianzus’life.Henotonlywrotefuneralpanegyricstohissister,brother,andfather,healsowrotethirty-fiveletterstooronbehalfoffamilymembers.Hewrote106epigramsforhisfamily,81ofwhichwereforhisimmediatefamily.130OfthemanyfamilialsituationsGregorymentionsthroughouthislife,twoepisodesstandoutasparticularexamplesofhowstronglyhefeltthetiesofkinshipandthekindsofbehaviortheynecessitated.Intheearly370s,hisowncousin,youngAmphilochius,foundhimselfinmuchthesamesituationasGregory:ascaretakerforhiselderly,sickfather.Gregory’sfatherdiedin374,andnotlongafterwardhegotwordthathisUncleAmphilochiuswasangryathim,blamingGregoryforsuggestingthathissonAmphilochiusbecomebishopofIconium.OldUncleAmphilochiusfeltthathehadbeenrobbedofhissonandcaretaker.Infact,ithadbeenBasilofCaesareaorchestratingyoungAmphilochius’consecrationthathadrecentlytakenplace.Gregory,stillinmourningforhisownfather,becamedistraughtovertheentiresituation.HewroteLetter63toassuage(p.131) UncleAmphilochius,whileatthesametimetryingtoexoneratehimself.Gregoryexplainsthathisowngriefpreventedhimfromcomingtovisithisuncle,andheinvokestheintimatebondsofkinshiptomakethecasethatheandhisuncleareinthesamesituation.Heclaimsthattheyhavebothbeen“tyrannized”bytheircommonfriend,Basil.131Theybothhavesufferedloss,hewrites,buthisownisworsesincehisunclewillseehissonagain.Gregorycallshiscousinhis“brother”andexpresseshisfearandsorrowthathenowhasbecomeabishop,anawesomeresponsibilitythathe,too,bears.Incloser,morefamiliarlanguageheendstheletter,nearlyorderingUncleAmphilochiustoputasidehisgriefandblame,andtorememberthatheformerlyhadregardedGregoryashisonlybenefactor.

ThatGregorytooksuchakeeninterestinthefamilyofhisnieceAlypianaalsoconfirmshowseriouslyGregorytooktheobligationsofkinship.Alypiana,thedaughterofGregory’ssisterGorgoniaandherhusbandAlypius,marriedNicobulus,amanofhighrankbutwho,overtheyears,wasnotabletoadequatelyprovideforhisfamily.Gregory’scorrespondencerevealsaninterestinthefamilysustainedfrom365onward.

NicobulusandAlypianamusthavebeennewlywedswhenNazianzenfirstwrotetotheyoungman.Nicobulusapparentlyhadcommentedonthecontrastinsizebetweenhisdiminutivewifeandhimself.GregoryatfirstgetsintothespiritofNicobulus’jokingabouthis“monstroussize,”thencounselshimtolookbeyondhersmallnesstoherformidablevirtuesasadevoutChristianandindustriouswife.“Thenyouwillcongratulateyourselfonyourmarriage.”132Theletteralmostmakesoneblush,sinceitbetraysGregory’sclumsinessatcommentingonthetransitionofthenewlywedstothenuptialstate,fullofthejoysofyouthfulintimacy.ButGregory’slackofexperienceasahusbanddidnotpreventhimfromactingasaresponsiblegreatuncle,orevenasagreat-grandfather,presidingoverthecaresofhisextendedfamilynomatterwhatthesituation.


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YetNicobuluswasdestinedneitherforsuccessnoralonglife.GregorywroteLetters13,21,and146–148tohelpextricateNicobulusfromhisterriblelegalandfinancialstraits.Letter13tohiscousinAmphilochiusofIconiumandLetter21totheprefectSophroniusshowthatNicobulushadgotteninto“unexpectedtroubles”earlyinhismarriage.133Letter147isparticularlypoignant.GregoryasksthegovernortohelpNicobulus,justifyingthisparticularlyonthe(p.132) dutiesofkinship.Inhisview,NicobulusisworthyoffavorssincehecaresforGregoryinhisoldageandsickness.134

Thingsneverreallyimproved,andby385,whenNicobulusdied,hehadlefthisaffairsindisarrayforAlypianaandthechildren.GregorywroteLetter195tothegovernortohelpouthiswidowednieceandherchildren,especiallyhisgrandnephew,hisdear,illustriousNicobulus.135GregoryobviouslyhadasoftspotinhisheartforyounggrandnephewNicobulus.Hisfifteenletterstoorforthisyoungmansetouttoteachhimtheartoflaconicletterwriting,tointroducehimtomenofinfluence,andtosecuretutorsforhim.136Perhapsevenmoreimportant,Gregorylovedhimgreatly,anditisclearthathetookgreatdelightinhisstimulatingcompany,wheneverNicobuluscouldsqueezeinashortvisittohisgreat-uncle.137

ItisalmostredundanttoconcludethatfamilytiesloomedlargefortheCappadocianFathers.Quitetheoppositeofrenouncingallfamilyties,theyspentagooddealoftheirlivesreinforcingthemineverywayaffordedthembytheirstatus,wealth,andprivilege.Theirlivesspeaktotheoverridingcaretheyhadforpreservingtheintegrityoftheirfamilies’reputations,aswellastheprimaryplacefamilyconcernsconsistentlytookforthem,nomatterwhatthesituation.Andwecannothelpbutnoticethegenuine,deepemotionsthatopenlysuffusetheirfamilyinteractions.Clearly,theCappadocianspracticedtheasceticlifewhilecontinuingtosustainthefamilialobligationsandbenefitsoftheirnatalhouseholds.Theymusthavebeenkeenlyaware,however,thattheirchoicetoliveincelibacydidhavesignificantrepercussionsforthefutureoftheirfamilies.Butnowweshallseehowtheychosetosolvethatproblem.

MartyrsasTheirAncestorsOftheirmyriadaccomplishments,nothingrevealsmoreexplicitlyhowhighlyBasilandNyssenvaluedconsanguineouskinshipthantheirappropriationof(p.133) threefamoussaintsastheirownrelatives.Ratherthanminimizetheimportanceofbloodrelationshipsinfavorofspiritualkinshipwiththemartyrs,astheypreachedintheirascetictreatisesandpanegyricsalike,theyinsteadengagedinaquasi-mergerofthetwoforthebenefitoftheirownfamily.Inaratherparadoxical,untidyfashiontheyconstructakindofphysicalyetspiritualkinshipwiththesemartyrs.Throughtheprocessofclaimingthesefamousmartyrsastheirexclusiveforebears,theynotonlywidenedthedefinitionofkinshipfortheirownfamilybuttheyalsoenhanceditsprestigeandhelpedsecureitsfuture.

GregoryThaumaturgus

WhenBasilandhissiblingsweregrowingup,ElderMacrinakepttheordealofthepersecutionaliveforhergrandchildrenthroughrousingstoriesofheroismofthemartyrs.Theserivetingaccountsreinforcedbyherindomitablepresencehadalastingeffectonhergrandchildren.ThepersecutionbecamethedefiningeventforthewayBasil’sfamilyunderstooditsroleinsocietyandhoweachmemberrelatedtoeachother.Thetimeofthe


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martyrsassumedmythicproportionsforBasil,evenwhenhewasfullygrown;anditdirectlyinfluencedhowhewouldrepresenthisfamily.138

WhentheclergyofNeocaesareaaccusedBasilofArianism,hisdefensewentrightbacktohisgrandmotherMacrinaandherpersonalconnectiontotheirmostfamous,heroicsaint,GregoryThaumaturgus.139“Whatclearerevidencecantherebeofmyfaith,thanIwasbroughtupbymygrandmother,blessedwoman,whocamefromyou?ImeanthecelebratedMacrinawhotaughtmethewordsoftheblessedGregory;whichasfarasmemoryhadpreserveddowntoherday,shecherishedherself.”140HealsoinsistedthatthespecialqualityofPontuswhereGregoryThaumaturgusperformedallhismiracleswasanintegralpartofhim.NotonlydidElderMacrinaraisehiminPontus,hekeptreturningtherequiteoftentothemonasticretreat,“becausemybrothersarenowlivinghere.”141

ForBasiltorefertohisgrandmother,tothelandofPontusashishomeland—his“patrida”—andtoGregoryThaumaturgusashis“spiritualfather”(p.134) wasadeftrhetoricalcombinationsinceallthreearelinkedbytheintimatelanguageoffamily.HewritestotheNeocaesareans(Pontus)inhisowndefense:

Ifittendmuchtowardsintimacytohavethesameteachers,therearetoyouandtomethesameteachersofGod’smysteries,andspiritualFathers,whofromthebeginningwerethefoundersofyourChurch.ImeantheGreatGregory,andallwhosucceededinordertothethroneofyourepiscopate….Andtruly,ifbloodrelationshipsarenottobecastaside,butevencontributegreatlytoanunbrokenunionandfellowshipoflife,thesebirthrightsalsoexistbetweenyouandus.142

Throughjuxtaposingthegrandeuroftheeraofthemartyrswithhisverypersonal,childhoodmemoriesofElderMacrina,heintentionallyelevatedthestatusofhisfamilyevenfurther.Butbyplacingthetwosidebyside,heincorporatedGregoryThaumaturgusintothefamily.HisdefenseagainsttheiraccusationsofArianismwasembeddedinthePontians’owntradition,anditwasabrilliantstrategy.

Likehisbrother,GregoryofNyssawasdeeplydevotedtoGregoryThaumaturgus.In380,hedeliveredapanegyricforthesaintatthegatheringofbishopsassembledforanelectoralsynod.AlthoughtheeventsNyssenrecountsthereinhavescarcelyanyresemblancetotheThaumaturgus’ownlife,Nyssen’sversionreconfirmshisfamily’spowerovertheChurchinPontus.143Whatismore,hissermonbringstolifethesaintwhomheclaimedwaspartoftheirfamily’shistory.Tohiswayofthinking,hewastheThaumaturgus’spiritualgreat-grandsonthroughhisgrandmother.144Throughouthislengthypanegyric,NyssennotonlyrevisedthetraditionsabouttheWonderworker,makinghimthepreeminentsaintofPontus,butalsopreservedthefamily’scontrolovertheThaumaturgus’imageastheirspiritualancestor.145

Nyssen’spanegyricreliesonwhatheheardabouttheThaumaturgusasachildcombinedwiththelocalloreabouthimgatheredfromvillagesalloverPontus.HeprobablydeliveredthepanegyricatthemainchurchinNeocaesarea,sincetherewasnoshrinefortheThaumaturgus.146Nyssendeliberatelystressesthisfactattheendofthepanegyric,claimingthattheThaumaturguspromotedthecultofthemartyrstoallhispeopleandthathepurposelyhadno(p.135) gravesothathewouldnotberankedwiththemartyrs.147Even


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thoughtheThaumaturgusdidnottechnicallydieamartyr,thefaithfulhonoredhimasaprotomartyrlikeTheclaandStephen,sincehewasthepreeminentsaintofPontus,founderofChristianityinPontus.148NyssenknewthatsuchanironicstatementwouldhavestunnedtheaudienceandonlyenhancedthegreatnessoftheThaumaturgus,sincetheymostcertainlydidcelebratehimasamartyr.149

Justlikehisbrother,NyssenevokestheThaumaturgusthroughpersonalmemoryhandeddownthroughthegenerations.BothbrothersclaimtheThaumaturgusastheirownkinintwowaysthatthelaitycouldnotimitate.First,ElderMacrina’slinktotheWonderworkerfixedtheirclaimtokinshipwithhimastheirspiritualancestor.Buttheirgrandmother’sconnectiontohimeasilyblurredthedistinctionbetweenspiritualandphysicalkinship.Second,linkingthemselvestothefirstbishopofPontusreinforcedtheirelevatedstatusandauthorityasbishopsandclerics,andgroundedtheirdoctrineinthetraditionofsanctityandorthodoxy.150Italsoextendedthegulfbetweenthemandthelaity,whocouldneverclaimsuchhereditarysanctitywithsuchanillustrioussaint.

Thecla

GregoryThaumaturguswasonlyoneofahandfulofexceedinglypopular,powerfulsaintsinAsiaMinor.TheclaofSeleucia,too,hadgreatauthority.151ExactlyliketheThaumaturgus,Theclaleftnobodyatherdeath,sincearockopenedupandengulfedher,savingherfromhostilecriminals.152AshrinetoSt.Theclasoonwaserectedaroundtherock,andpilgrimsvisitedyear-round.AndexactlyasinthecaseofGregoryThaumaturgus,thecultgrewuparoundaplacethatexplainstheveryabsenceofrelics.153BecauseTheclaperformedallsortsof(p.136) miracles,thelaitysoonmergedherstorywith“thecharismaticreputationofthemartyr.”154SowidespreadwashercultthatTheclawasacommonnameforwomeninthefourthcentury.155

GregoryofNyssarecordsthathissisterMacrinawassupposedtohavebeennamedThecla.Whileinlaborwithherfirstchild,EmmeliahadavisionofaheavenlyfigurewhorepeatedthreetimesthatherdaughtershouldbecalledThecla.Inthanksgivingfortheholyvisitation,Emmeliawantedtodoso.ButshecompliedwiththecustomofnamingtheeldestdaughterafterthepaternalgrandmotherandnamedthechildMacrina.YetthisdidnotpreventEmmeliafrombestowing“Thecla”onherdaughterashersecretname.Gregorysayssuccinctlythatthename“foretoldthelifeofthechild.”156

WecansafelyassumethatEmmeliawasdevotedtoTheclaandtaughtherchildrenaboutthemiraculouspowersofthesaint.IntheLife,GregoryimmortalizedMacrina’sconnectiontoTheclaandgroundedhissisterpersonallyintheearliestgenerationsofChristianwomenbyassociationwiththissaintwhohadaccompaniedPaul.157Yetintermsofkinship,Gregorydoesevenmore.Significantly,hewritesthatTheclaentersMacrina’sliferightatthetimeofherbirth,establishingherconnectionwiththechildinname,vocation,andakindofgodmotherhood.Inthisway,GregoryimpliesthatTheclaspirituallybirthedMacrinaandwatchedoverhissisterfromthatmomenton.Macrina’sdestinywassetbyThecla,“theprotomartyr,virginandmartyr,andthenewmartyrofasceticism.”158Macrina’skinshipwithTheclaasherspiritualdaughterwasevidentinherrejectionofmarriageandherdevotiontoasceticism.


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Macrina’skinshipwithTheclaasherveritableyetspiritualdaughterisalsoplayedoutresoundinglyinherrelationshiptohermotherEmmelia.GregorystatesclearlythatfromaveryearlyageMacrinabecameEmmelia’steacher,instructinghergraduallyintheasceticlife.159WhenbrotherNaucratiusdied,Macrinaassumedthefullreversalofroleswithhermother.MacrinaguidedEmmeliathroughmourningbymotheringhermother,andsheeventuallyconvincedEmmeliatolivethelifeofcompletepoverty.Macrinabecamethematernalauthorityoftheentirefamily.GregoryshapeshisaccountaroundthefactthatThecla’sinfluenceasMacrina’sspiritualmotherandguidingforceincreasedthroughoutherlife,whileEmmelia’swaned.

(p.137) OneofNyssen’smajorpurposesintheLifeofSaintMacrinaistoclaimkinshipwithSt.TheclanotonlyforMacrinabutalsoforhisfamily.ForbothBasilandGregory,“theparadoxesofsanctitywererootedinfamilialground.”160“Gregoryconflatesthefamilyinasinglegenea;allmemberssharethegloryofeach.”161Anoblefamilylineinthetraditionoffourth-centuryCappadociawasnolongerenoughforGregory,norwasitacceptableforhisfamilytobelumpedwiththelaitywhowereclaimingmartyrsasadoptedancestorsoftheirlocalcommunities.162Inaninnovativeredefinitionofblood,hisfamily’sconnectiontothemartyrsembodiedanancestryofsanctity,demonstrablydirectandintimate.

TheFortyMartyrsofSebasteia

Sometimebetween355and358,EmmeliadisplayedherardentdevotiontotheFortyMartyrsofSebasteiabybuildingashrineforthematIbora,onlyonemilefromthefamily’sestateinAnnesi.Itisnoaccidentthattheshrinewasdirectlyadjacenttoherfamily’scrypt,whereherhusbandBasilandhersonNaucratius(ca.+357)werealready(orwouldbe)buried.Toeventuallybeburiednearthemartyrswastheidealforeveryone.163Bluntlystated,Emmeliacouldaffordthistangiblelinkbetweentheseverypopularmartyrsandherfamily.164Thecrypt’sproximitytotheFortyMartyrsannouncedthesocialandeconomicprestigeofthefamily,aswellastheir“closeness”to,andthusevenproprietaryattitudetoward,themartyrs.Italsopublicizedtheirpietythroughlargessetothecommunity,sincetheyfacilitatedthecultthroughabeautifulshrinewherefestivals,petitions,andmiraclescouldtakeplaceforeveryone.Emmelia’ssponsorshipoftheshrineexplicitlyproclaimedherfamily’skinshipwiththeFortyMartyrsinamaterialway.

EmmeliaalsofosteredthespreadofthecultoftheFortyMartyrsthroughhersonsBasilandGregory.OnthedaywhentherelicswerebroughttothenewshrineatIbora,EmmeliainsistedthatGregoryaccompanyhertothepanegyris.(p.138) Twenty-fiveyearslater,inoneofhistwohomiliestotheFortyMartyrs,Gregoryrelateswhatapersonal,life-changingeventitwasforhim,sincetheFortyMartyrsintervenedinhislifethatday.Whenhefellasleepduringthefestivities,theycametohiminadream.SofrightenedwasGregorybytheirremonstrationsandthrashingwithsticksthathechangedhislife.Withinayearorsohewasbaptized.165

ItisunimaginablethatthiswasthefirsttimeGregoryrelatedthismomentousencounterwiththeFortyMartyrs.Theyactedintheroleofwhatlaterwouldbecalled“godparent.”Nolivingpersonhadhadsuchaneffectonhim,leadinghimtobaptism.TheFortyMartyrshadpersonallyintervenedashisspiritualmentors,andhewasindeedboundtothemasagodchildwouldbe.Hisrelationshipwiththemonlyreinforcedthekinshipbondsalready


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establishedbyhismother,whenshebuilttheshrinenexttotheircrypt.166

Althoughitisnotcertain,BasilprobablybuiltashrinetotheFortyMartyrsinCaesareawhenhebecamebishopthere.167HishomilyontheFortyMartyrsismuchlesspersonalthanthoseofhisbrother;rather,heseemstobeintroducingtheFortyMartyrs,soclosetohisfamily,tohisnewcongregation.Afterall,hewasobligedtolearnaboutthelocalmartyrsofCaesarea,Sts.Gordius,Mamas,andJulitta.Buthissinceredevotiontothemisevidentinhisemotionalspeech,whichwouldhaveinspiredhimtobuildsuchashrine.Followinghismother’sexample,hetookonthefamilyobligationtospreadtheculttohisnewcity,havingassumedhisownkinshipwiththemfromhisfamily.

Nevertheless,Basil’sandGregory’sfamilyclaimstospecificrelationshipsofkinshipwiththesemartyrsdidnotbydefinitioncompletelyexcludethelaityandotherclergy.Itdid,however,signifyahierarchyofaffiliationwiththemartyrs.ItmeantfirstthattheirownfamilyheldthehighestofChristianranks,transcribingthehumansocialorderontothespiritualonebymeansoftheirclosenesstoGregorytheWonderworker,Thecla,andtheFortyMartyrs—themostpopular,famoussaintsofAsiaMinor.Inaddition,theconnectionsthatexistedbetweentheirfamilyandthoseancestralmartyrsconferredthespecialprivileges,benefits,andexpectationsonthefamily.Thatthesaintsweremartyrsmadethatkinshipricherstill.Itimpliedthattheirfamilymembersparticipatedreciprocallyintheheavenlygraceandholypowerofthoseancestral(p.139) martyrsinthesamewayasadaughtermightgethergrandmother’sgreeneyesordistinctiveblackhair.Onceagainboundariesblur.Technicallyspeaking,kinshipwiththemartyrswasspiritualkinship.Butbecausetheseancestralmartyrshadsomephysicalproximityand/orphysicalcontactwiththeirfamilymembers—tutelagefromtheThaumaturgustoElderMacrina,abirthinginthecaseofTheclawithMacrina,andadisciplinaryactioninGregory’sthrashingbytheFortyMartyrs—theirkinshipwiththeseancestralmartyrstookontingesofconsanguineouskinship,intentionallyamalgamatingseeminglymutuallyexclusivekindsofkinship:biologicalandspiritual.

ForalltheotherChristians,monasticsandlaityincluded,theCappadocianspreachedthateveryonecouldhaveanadopted,spiritualkinshipwiththemartyrsbyhonoringthemartyrsatthepanegyreisandthroughimitationoftheirvirtues.Ratherthanthemoresociallyconfinedmodelofcivicpatronage,theCappadociansstressedthatallChristiansideallybelongedtothecommunitylikemembersofanadoptedfamilyinwhicheachmemberis“graftedon,”inthePaulinesense.Martyrsofeachtownorregionbecametheadoptedancestorsofallwhodweltthere.168And,indeed,alltheotherChristiansdevotedtothemartyrscouldexpecttheirintercession,protection,andevenmiracles.Theyrelatedtothemartyrshierarchically,aschildrenrelyontheirparents.Andbecauseoftheirkinshipwiththefaithful,themartyrsansweredthelaity’sprayersandprotectedthemfromharm.169ThoughtheCappadociansdonotexplicitlysayso,byimplicationeveryoneelse’skinshipwiththemartyrswasamuchlessexclusive,lesspersonalizedrelationshipthantheonestheywereclaimingfortheirfamily.

Monasticsandlaityalsohadakinshipwiththemartyrsbyactuallybecomingmartyrsthroughasceticdiscipline.Thiswasmostdifficultofallandrarelyoccurred.Nolongerwouldthepersonbeinaninterdependent,reciprocalrelationshipwithamartyr;heorshewouldbeamartyr.AsBasilwrotetootherbishopswhenheinvitedthemtoattendthepanegyreisofSts.


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EupsychiusandDamas,“Moreover,thereisakindofbloodrelationship(suggenes)betweentheonelivingameticulouslifeandthosewhoreachedperfectionthroughendurance.”170Attainmentofsuchafeatwasopentoall,sinceBasilalsochallengedhisflock:“Becomeamartyrbychoice,andendupbeingworthyofthesamerewardsastheirs,withoutpersecution,withoutfire,withoutblows.”171(p.140) Butattainmentofmartyrdomwasadifferentexistentialstateofrelationshipfrom“kinshipwiththemartyrs;”itwasoutsidetherealmoffamilyandwasthehighestofallChristiangoals.

TurningTheirFamiliesintoMartyrsGregoryofNazianzuswrotethefollowingtributetohisentirefamilywithaheavyheart.“FirstCaesariuswasthecommonsorrow,thenGorgonia,afterwardsbelovedfather,andthennotverylongafterwardsmother.”172TheCappadociansweresetapartfromothersnotonlybecauseoftheirnobility,wealth,andachievementsintheChurchbutalsobecauseoftheiradmirable,particularattentiontothebondsoffamilyrelationships.Theirattentivenessdidnotweakenasmembersoftheirfamiliesdied.Basilwrote,“NowformysinsIhavelostmymother,theonlycomfortIhadinmylife.”173Intheprocessofmemorializingtheirrelatives,theirfamilialdevotionincombinationwiththeirclaimstokinshipwiththemartyrstransformedtheirrelativesintomartyrs,crystallizingtheiridentitiesintheranksofthesaints—extraordinarilysoonafterdeathandthenforever.

Throughastoundingfuneralpanegyrics,theCappadocianssuccessfullyturnedtheirdeceasedrelativesintomartyrswhereintheyassimilatedtheeventsoftheirlivestothetrialsofthemartyrs.Combinedwithalloftheotherstrategiesthatassuredtheirownprestigeintermsofthemartyrcults,thepanegyricsfirstsecuredtheirrelativeseternallifewiththemartyrs.Andbestofall,sucheffortssecuredthefutureoftheirlineagebymakingtheirrelativesintosaintswithinafewyearsoftheirdeaths.Whatisquiteremarkable,formallyspeaking,isthatwearewitnessinganexceptionalconfluenceofrhetoricalgenresintheCappadocians’writingsfortheirrelativesandthemartyrs.Isitanaccident,then,thatideastraditionallyexpressedinseparategenresalsomergeandblur?

Bythetimetheyhadcompletedtheirsecondaryeducation,theCappadocianshadmasteredtherulesofrhetoricalcomposition,knowinghowandwhentowriteavarietyoforations,dependingontheoccasionandvenue.Theywereadeptatdeliveringpanegyricspraisingpeopleongreatoccasions,suchasbirthdays,churchfestivals,weddings,andfunerals.Allofthesepanegyricsfellunderthecategoryof“epideicticspeeches.”Afuneralencomium,theepitaphioslogos,likeanyotherpanegyric,wasconstructedaccordingtostrictrulesofrhetoricsetouthandbooks:aprologue,descriptionofcountry,thenobilityofthe(p.141)family,circumstancesofbirth,education,theextraordinarycharacteristicsoftheindividual,heroicdeeds,andcomparisonswithothergreatpeople,andfinallyanepilogue.174

Unlikefuneralencomia,generalpanegyricswerecomposedformanysortsoffestivecelebrationsandcouldberepeatedyearlyatthecommemoration.Aswehaveseen,theCappadociansharnessedtheubiquitousenthusiasmforthecultofthemartyrsbycomposingbeautifulpanegyricsforthemfortheyearlyfestivals.Theybasedthesepanegyricspreciselyontherulesofclassicalrhetoric.Alongwithencouragingtheburgeoninggrowthofdevotiontothemartyrs,theirpanegyricscontributedsubstantiallytoanewgenreofliterature—hagiobiography—blendingininfinitevarietiesaspectsoftraditionalbiography,funeral


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oration,andtheparticularChristiantoposoftheholyperson,thehagios.175ItisnosurprisethattheybringChristianvirtuesandtopoitotheforeintheirnewversionsoftheage-oldgenreoffuneralpanegyric.Infact,thoughtherewerehandbooksandrulesforfuneraloratorybasedonMenander,“breakingtherulesistherulethroughoutthetradition,anddoesnotstartwiththeChristianorators.”176

Whentheirownclosefriendsandrelativesdied,theCappadocianscommemoratedthemasremarkableChristiansinvariousepigrams,funeralorations,andhagiobiographies,“withthesamespiritofpraisetheyusedforthemartyrs.”177Itisquiteremarkablethat,thoughmosthagiobiographiesofchurchfathersastheywouldcomedowntouslater,“whetherintheformofavita,anenkomion,orafuneraloration,[were]rarelybasedonthehagiographer’spersonalexperienceorinvestigation,”thoseoftheCappadociansactuallywere.178While,ontheonehand,theydonotlackthehagiographical“ingredientsofattractivestory-telling,”sodefinitiveforthegenre,ontheotherhand,themostsensationalelementsofstory-telling,socommoninhagiographyandnovels,suchasappearancesofdemons,miraclesofallsorts,prophesies,anddivinecommunicationthroughdreams,areeithermitigatedorexcluded.179Mosttellingly,theliterarytropesofsexualallurement,sexualpursuit,sexualviolence,sexualrebuff,andhorrificviolenceofallsortswiththe(p.142) attendantvoyeurismaremissinginnearlyallhagiobiographiesofachurchfatherormother.Boththegenreandthecontentoftheorationsconveyedtheunambiguousmessagethatthesepiousfriendsandrelativeswerenotonlylikethemartyrs,theyalsoaccomplishedsimilarfeatsandshouldbereveredassuch.NorweretheCappadociansuniqueinthisrespect.“Itispossibletotalk,forthefourthcentury,ofasimilardrifttowardsa‘martyrization’ofthedeceased.”180

ItisworthnotingthatDelehaye,thegreatscholarandpioneerofhagiographicalstudies,equivocatedonthispoint,findingthesubjectuncomfortable.AfterassertingthattheCappadocianslaudedtheirrelativesinthe“samespirittheyusedforthemartyrs,”hethenqualifiesthestatement,“albeitatarankinferiortothemartyrs.”181Delehayeappearsclosertothetruthwhenhelatercommentsthatclosereadingsofthepanegyricsreveal“thenearlyindetectable[sic]enlargementintheevolutionofthecultofthesaints,whereoneseethehonors,atfirstreservedforthemartyrs,nowequallysharedwithbishops,ascetics,andvirgins,”whoalsohappenedtobetheirparents,brothers,sisters,andfriends.182

CaesariusEulogized

Nazianzen’syoungerbrotherCaesariusdiedin369,unfortunatelyyoungandbeforeanyoneelseinhisfamily.Caesariuswasunabashedlyacosmopolite,secular,andambitiousforacareerfirstinConstantinopleandtheninBithynia,sohislifedoesnotlookatfirstglanceasifitcouldconformtothemodelofthemartyrs.“Thoughhislifewasbynomeansscandalous,itcouldonlybesetupasanexamplewithdifficulty.”183YetGregorycleverlywovemartyrthemesintohiseulogyforhisbrotherattwocrucialpartsofthepanegyric.

Therulesofthegenremadethefirstinstanceeasy:Caesariuscamefromasaintlyfamily.Gregorysparednopraisefortheextraordinarypietyofhisfatherandmother.HisfavoritecomparisonfortheirfatherwastoAaronorMoses.HethenmovedtoNonna,whosepietywasparticularlyexemplary.Asacouple,GregoryandNonna“loveChristmorethantheydotheirchildren.”WhenthemourningperiodforCaesariusbegan,Nonnadecidedtowearbrightclothes(p.143) suitableforafestival,ratherthansomberrobesofsorrow.She


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“overcamehertearswithphilosophy.”Insteadofwailing,shesoftlysangpsalms.BothNonnaandElderGregoryprovidedasceticmodelsfortheirson’seulogy.

Inthesecondinstance,NazianzenusedthesectionoftheorationonheroicdeedstoequateCaesarius’virtueswiththoseofthemartyrs.WhenhefirstmovedtoConstantinople,Caesariuswasmuchsoughtafterinsocialcircles.Yethewasabletostaveoffallthepotentialvenuesthatcould“corrupthissoul…foramonghismanyclaimstohonor,hecaredmostforbeing,andbeingknown,tobeaChristian;andcomparedwiththis,allotherthingsweretohimbuttriflingtoys.”184Caesariusshowedsuperhumanstrengthinhisabilitytowithstandthetemptationsofthesumptuouslifeattheimperialcourt.Infact,self-controlpracticeddailyamidsuchalifewasmuchmoredifficultthanfleeingfromittoamonastery.

TherealtestcamewhenJulianbecameemperor.SinglingouttheChristiansatcourt,Julianbribedsome,othersheflattered,andthemostobstinatehethreatened.WhenhesethissightsonCaesarius,theyoungdoctorrosetoJulian’schallenge.GregoryscoffedatJulian’suselessattempttoswayhisbrother,“thesonofparentslikeours!”

Gregoryusedthefamiliarlanguageofthemartyr’sarenaquiteboldlytodescribeCaesarius’ordeal.Christpresidedasjudgeoverthecontest,armingCaesarius,“theathlete,”withhisownsufferings.185“Caesarius,having‘torntoshreds’theargumentsoftheopponent,inaloud,clearvoicedeclaredthathewasandremainedaChristian.”WilyJulianstillretainedhim,becauseheenjoyedCaesarius’companysomuch;andwhileshowingcourageandself-denialforhisChristianfaith,Caesariuslefthissplendidpositionatcourt.“SuchwasthegodlinessofCaesarius.”186

TheeulogywasperformedaspartoftheliturgicalactofCaesarius’funeral,anditexplicitlyreferstotheritualsofamartyr’spanegyris:procession,psalmsinging,andtheoration.GregoryoftenbreaksintoprayerstoGodtoacceptCaesarius’soulintoheaven,whilereferringtohisorationasan“offering.”Moreover,justasforamartyr’spanegyris,hestatesspecificallythathisbrother’smemorywillbecelebratedeachyear.“Partofourgiftisnowcomplete,theremainderwewillnowpaybyoffering(thoseofuswhostillsurvive)everyyearourhonorsandmemorials.”187Noticeablylacking,however,areanymiraclesperformedbyCaesarius,anypowersofintercessionhemighthave,oranymentionofhisburialclosetoothersaints.Thelastomissionisless(p.144) significant,sinceweknowfromotherevidencetheirfamilytombwasnexttosomemartyrs.188

GorgoniaMemorialized

BittercircumstancesforcedGregory’sparentstoburytwooftheirchildren.NotlongafterCaesarius’death,theoldestchildofthefamily,Gorgonia,died.AshehaddoneforCaesarius,Gregorydeliveredamovingfuneralpanegyric,anepitaphioslogosforhissister,notonly,ashesays,becauseshewashisrelationbutalsobecauseherlifewastrulyworthyofcommendation.189Again,Gregorywasconfrontedwitheulogizingaquotidian,secularlifethatonthesurfacewasthepolaroppositefromeithertheidealofthe“philosophiclife”ofasceticismorthestarkrealityofmartyrdom.Gorgoniawasarichmarriedwoman,motherofthreedaughters,matronoveralargehousehold,andsupervisorofmanyservantsandslaves.Yetdespiteherworldlystatus,Gregory’spanegyricissosuccessfulthateverylistenerwouldknowthatGorgoniahadallthevirtuesofamartyr:thebestChristianancestry,


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alifeofcharityandself-denialforChrist,andmostofall,performanceofamiracle.Infact,addingtothischallenge,Gregory’sfuneralpanegyricforhissisteristheearliesthagiographictextinpraiseofaChristianwoman.190

GregoryspendsashorttimelikeninghisparentstothegreatbiblicalancestorsAbrahamandSarah,bluntlyconcluding,“FromthemGorgoniaderivedbothherexistenceandherreputation.”191WhatwasexceptionalinGorgonia’slife,however,washowshemanagedtoconductit.Hermarriedlifewasmodeledonasceticpiety,thefirststepinthevoluntarylifeofthemartyrs.Gorgoniawasabletoachieveaharmoniousbalancebetweentheresponsibilitiesofmarriageandherpersonalgoalsofself-abnegation,fasting,dailyprayer,ultimatediscretion,andpersonalasceticrigor.Hewrote,“Shelivedanddiedamidthewordofpiety.”Gorgonia’smodesty,prudence,discretion,andpatiencedrewpeopletoher.Shewasknownforhergenerousofferingstochurches,poorneighbors,andneedyrelatives,makingherhabitsofliferoughlyparalleltothedailyroutineofamonastery.

GregorydeclaredthatGorgonia’struehomewasJerusalem,“combiningthebestofthemarriedandtheunmarriedstate.”192Significantly,shededicated(p.145) toGod“nothersinglesoul,butthewholehousehold,andmakingwedlockillustriousthroughherownacceptabilityinwedlock.”193Gorgoniakeptlongfasts,prayedintearfulvigils,chantedthepsalms,andwasabletoreceivepropheciesfromGod.Insum,sheperfectedalltherequirementsoftheasceticlifequitediscreetlywhilekeepingupwithalltheworkrequiredofawealthymatron.Gorgonia’srelentlessvigilancesanctifiedeverydaymarriedlife.194

Likeamartyr,Gorgoniaeffectedtwomiraculouscuresthroughherexemplaryfaith.195Thisalonewouldspreadherreputationasasaintamongthelaity.Whenshesufferedbrokenbonesandinternalbruisesafteracarriageaccident,sherefusedtoseeadoctor.Rather,asashocktotheoutsidecommunity,Gorgonia’sinjurieswerecompletelyhealedbyGodthroughhersteadfastprayersandresolutetrust.Anothertimeshecontractedahorriblediseasethatwastedawayherbodyinfever,comas,andparalysis.Physicianswereconsultedthistimeonthecase,andherparentsprayedandsupplicatedGod,yetthediseasepersisted.“Despairingofallotheraid,”Gorgoniamusteredenoughstrengthtogetherselftochurchonenightwithoutanyone’sknowing.Thereshespentanentirenightprostrateinprayer,resolvednottoleaveuntilshewascured.Gregorycalledit“anactofpiousandsplendideffrontery.”Sheleftthechurchhealed.

Gorgoniawasbaptizedlateinlife,beforeherfinalillness.Whileallherfamily,includingheragedparents,gatheredroundheratherdeathbed,Gorgoniaspokeaboutthethingsofheaven,andthedayofherdeathproceededlikea“solemnfestival,”likeamartyrpanegyris.Asshelaydying,shewhisperedPsalm4.Nonnaattendedheratherdeathbed,“withanguishandaffection.”Thelocalbishopwasalsothere.Yettherewasnokeeninginlamentation;rather,therewas“solemnsilence,asifherdeathhadbeenareligiousceremony.”GregoryhintsthatGorgoniamayrespondtofuturepetitions,adding:“Andifyoutakeanyaccountofouraffairs,andholysoulsreceivefromGodthisprivilege,acceptthesewordsofmine,inplaceof,andinpreferencetomanypanegyrics.”196Headdsalmostironicallythathewaslefttogivethefuneralorationsforbothhissiblings,“Ifanyonewill,afteryou,paymethelikehonor,Icannotsay.”197Whateverhisoriginalintent,thestatementlinkshimselfwithhismartyrsiblings.


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GorgoniawasburiedinLyconiawithherhusband’sfamily.Whetherthecryptwasclosetomartyrrelicsisuncertain,butinthisepigramforhissister(p.146) Gregoryassuresussheiswiththemartyrs:“ThereisnothingofGorgoniaremainingontheearth,onlybones.Everythingwasplacedabove,OyouMartyrsvictorious.”198

NonnaandElderGregory,Memorialized

Nazianzen’smovingeulogytohisfather,whodiedatacenturyinage,praisesbothofhisparents.199Accordingtotheirson,NonnaandGregoryconsciouslystyledtheirlivesinimitationofthepiousobedienceofthebiblicalsaints,especiallyAbrahamandSarah.Incomparisonwiththepanegyricstohissiblings,thefuneralencomiumforhisfathercontainsmuchmorebiographicalinformationandhasmuchlessincommonwiththeformofamartyrpanegyric.Eventhoughhisparents’ascetichabitswouldqualifythemas“aspiringmartyrs,”verylittleinthepanegyricinvitesthehearerstoviewhisparentsasmartyrs.200Therearenopetitionstohisdeceasedfathertograntsomethingtotheliving.Evendetailsofthefuneralaremissing,soitisnotcomparabletoamartyrpanegyris.Indeed,ifGregoryhadwrittenonlythisfuneraloration,wewouldconcludethathehadnodesiretomemorializehisparents’transformationintomartyrs.Butthisisnotthecase.

Gregorysavedthelinkagetothemartyrsfortheepigrams.Gregorycomposedoverfiftyepigramstohismother(althoughhewrotenofuneralpanegyricforher)andoveradozentohisfather.Insomeway,hisepigramswerethespeedywaytoensurethatChristiannobilitywouldmakeitsmarkvisiblyandpermanentlyinsociety.201Variousepigramsconveyweariness,sorrow,bitterness,orlonging;butallofthemconveydeepest,sincerestlove.Short,crisp,andimmediate,theepigramsclearlylikenhisparentstothemartyrs,especiallysincetheydrawspecialattentiontothefactthatthefamilycryptwasfortunatelysituatedrightnexttothelocalmartyrshrine.202CaesariusandNonnawereburiedinonegrave,andthetwopriests,ElderGregory,andeventuallyhissonGregory,inanother.203

Incountlessvariationsofthesametheme,GregorysavorsthemomentofNonna’sdeath.Sheprayedceaselesslyatthealtar,neverleavingthechurchuntilshediedthere.Nonna’sunwaveringfaithhadgivenherpowertodefeat(p.147) thedevil,shehadperformedmiracles,nowindeathsheintercedesforothers.204“Nonna’swingedsoulleftfortheheavens,wesetherbodyoutsidetheshrinetothemartyrs.Mayyoumartyrsacceptthegreatsacrifice,theonewhoisfollowingyourveryownbloodwiththemuchlaboringflesh,shesilencedthegreatpowerofthedestroyerofsoulsthroughlong-livedlabors.”205Shelookslikeadivinepersonaswell,θεοείδης.206Inanotherepigram,Gregorypetitionsthemartyrsonbehalfofhismother,whonowisoneofthem,“Martyrs,begracious,indistressesbelovedNonnaisnotinferiortoyou,bythehiddenandyetpublicwar.”207Althoughitissuccinct,thisepigramshowsundoubtedlythathealsoconsideredhisfatheramartyr:“Savemenowfather,bythyprayersofmight,andyoumother,whodiedpraying.”208

BasilMemorialized

GregoryofNazianzus’PanegyriconSt.Basilisastunningtributetohisgreatfriend’slife,includinghisaccomplishmentsinasceticvirtueandhisillustriousepiscopalcareer.Indescribingthenobilityofhislineage,NazianzenimmediatelyplacesBasilinthecontextofthemartyrs.DescribingtheferocityofthepersecutionunderMaxminus,hedescribesBasil’s


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grandparents:“SopreparedanddeterminedweretheytobearreadilyallthosethingsonaccountofwhichChristcrownsthosewhohaveimitatedHisstruggleonourbehalf.”209BecausehisenduranceduringtrialsrivaledtheMaccabees,“hewontheirglory.”210“ByrankingBasilwiththegreatpatriarchsofScripture,hedoesnothesitatetoconferonhisherothetitleofsaint.”211

NazianzendeliveredthisfuneralpanegyricasamemorialtwoyearsafterBasil’sdeathin381.Yet,astheclimaxoftheoration,hepurposelyre-createdthelastmomentsofhisfriend’sdeathandthefuneral,andhedoessotospectaculareffect.Bydramatizingtheritualsofthefuneraltwoyearspast,hemadetheoccasionevenmorelikeamartyr’spanegyris,sinceeveryonepresentwouldhavebeenquitefamiliarwiththeritualsperformedyearlyatmanyamartyr’sshrine.“ThiseloquentcompositionofhagiographyisoneofGregory’smostpoeticworks.”212OfBasil’sdeathhewrites,“Thetimeforhiscrownwas(p.148) approaching.”Therewasacrushofpeoplewhenthefuneralprocessionbegan.Everyoneclamoredtotouchthebier,tobeinitsholyshadow,ortotouchhisholyremains,“forwhatcouldbemoreholyorpurethanthatbody?”213Psalmssungintheprocessiongavewaytounrulylamentationsandoutburstsofemotion.Evenworse,violenceerupted,andpeoplewerekilled,endingupas“funeralvictims!”Basil’sbodywasthenplacedinanepiscopaltombinCaesarea,“themartyrtothemartyrs.”Gregoryexclaims:“Andnowheisinheaven,offeringsacrificesforusandprayingforthepeople.”214FinallyGregoryendsthemovingpanegyricforhisfriend,withthestaunchbeliefthatBasilcaneffectmiraclesforpeopleandofferintercessionsforthosewhocalluponhim.“Yetmayyougazeuponusfromabove,youdivineandsacredperson,eitherstaybythyentreatiesourthornintheflesh…orprevailuponustobearitboldly,andguideallourlifetowardthatwhichismostforourprofit.”215Gregory’sfirmbeliefinhisfriend’ssaintlypowerisechoedlaterinthisepigram:“ContinueIimploreyou,tostandofferingupthygiftsfortheworld.”216

ThoughGregoryofNyssaalsomemorializedhisbrotherBasilwithafuneralpanegyric,surprisinglythatisnottheplacewhereheconnectsBasiltothemartyrs.Interestinglyenough,helinkedBasilandthemartyrsinhissecondpanegyricfortheFortyMartyrsdeliveredinCaesarea,March379,onlytwomonthsafterBasil’sdeath.Inamomentoffraternaladmiration,hepraiseshisvirtuousbrotherforhisintrepiddefenseofthefaith,hisgoodworks,andhisservice“tothesaintsasasaint.”217Gregory’spraiseofhisbrotherhereisthemostexuberantandpersonalofallhisstatementsaboutBasil,anditgetsclosesttoequatinghimtoamartyr.Basil’sgrievingflockwouldhavebeenabletorecognizetheirbishopinthesepraises,butthatwouldbelessthecaseafewyearslaterinNyssen’sfuneralpanegyric.

NyssenhadlostbothBasilandMacrinawithinayearofeachother.UnabletoattendBasil’sfuneral,Nyssenmemorializedhisgreatbrotherin381,severalyearsafterhisdeath.BasilwasnotburiedinthefamilytombinIbora,butinCaesarea,soNyssengavetheaddressinCaesareaonJanuary1,rightafterthecelebrationsofChristmas,St.Stephen’s,andthefeastofHolyApostles.218ThesesaintsprovidedtheperfectsegueintotheparticularthemesofNyssen’s(p.149) funeraloration.ThecontrastbetweenNazianzen’spanegyrictoBasilandNyssen’sisastonishing.ThemostobviousdifferenceisthatNyssen’spanegyricgivesaremote,distant,andimpersonaldepictionofBasilasbothabrotherandahumanbeing.NyssenmanagedtoavoidsayingeverythingabouthisbrotherthatNazianzanhadnarrated


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soeloquentlyandmeticulously.219

Nyssen’sPanegyriconSt.BasilplaceshiminthepagesoftheBiblewithqualitiessovauntedthattheyarefarfromNyssenandthefamily.220Hisrhetoricisalsosostylizedthattheirparentsarenotworthmentioning,sinceBasil’sraceis“familiaritywithGodandvirtue.”221HeranksBasilalmostendlesslywithPaul,John,Stephen,Elijah,Samuel,andMoses,whowereindeedimitablesaints,buttheywereatthesametimeremoteinlocationandtime.Theywerenotnearlysoconnectedtothecommunityaswerethelocalmartyrs,familiartotheminplace,inheritedlore,recentmemory,andpassionatedevotion.Rather,NyssenframesBasil’sfeatsinuniversalterms,firstfortheworldstageandtheninbiblicalhistory.222ButhedoesnotdrawBasilneartothepeoplethroughpetitionsorcallsforintercession.

GregoryofNyssacomesclosesttolikeningBasiltothemartyrswhenhesayshewas“abravesoldierofChrist,”anobliquequotationof2Timothy2:3.223HealsoclaimsforBasilunitywiththemartyrsindeath,sinceaperson’s“misfortunecannotalwaysimitatethemartyrs’strugglesonbehalfofthetruth.”224Hisquestion,“Isthecelebrationinferiorincomparisonwiththerestofthesaints’festivals?”seemsgratuitous,sincehedoesnotpursueanycontextofapanegyris,sofamiliarandpopularwiththeaudience.

Finally,Basilisnotenshrinednexttothetombofthemartyrs.Dramatically,NyssencomparesBasil’stombwiththelostgraveofMoses,sincebothofthem“departedlifeanddidnotleavebehindamemorialofhisbodilyexistence.”225Thismayhaveworkedrhetorically,butitisstillquiteoddsinceBasilwasburiedinCaesareaalongwithalltheotherbishopsandpriestsofthecity,andNyssenwasprobablystandingrightinfrontofthecryptwhenhedeliveredthisoration.226

(p.150) Inhisbrother’spanegyric,Basilbelongedtotheclergy,“highpriestwithpriests,”notwiththemartyrs.Hehadlosttiesbothtothefamilyandtothelocalcommunity.SincethemartyrswereancestorstobothinNyssen’sworldview,itmakessensethatBasiltranscendedallspecificlocalizationofhisorigins,mitigatinghisrelationshiptothemartyrs.ThisstandsinconspicuouscontrasttoGregory’sLifeofSaintMacrina,wherehemergeshissister’slifewithavibranttheologyofmartyrdom,virtue,intercession,miracles,andbeneficence.GregorymemorializesMacrinaasamartyrbypromotingarelationalqualitybetweenherandthosewhovenerateher.Theeffectwouldbehealingandblessingonherbelieversandeternalmemoryforhissister.Therewasatrueinterchange.AllofthatisconspicuouslymissinginNyssen’sPanegyriconSt.Basil.

MacrinaMemorialized

GregoryofNyssa’sLifeofSaintMacrinatransformsthenarrationofMacrina’slifeintothevitaofasaintthroughtheprocessof“hagiographicalcomposition.”227Becauseitappearstobeintheformofaletter,theLifeofSaintMacrinaisaheartfeltmeditationonhissister’slifeasamartyr,notapanegyricforhermemorialcelebration.Itisamasterfulwork,thebestexampleofhagiobiography,asGregorycreativelycombinesfundamentalelementsofpanegyricandbiography.TheprocessofwritingtheLifeofSaintMacrinaprovidedaworthymemorialandatthesametimehelpedNyssentoovercomehisoverridinggriefatthelossofhissister.228AsabsentasGregory’semotionswereinhispanegyrictoBasil,thusaretheypalpablypresentintheLifeofSaintMacrina.Gregorywroteitayearorsoafterherdeathin


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380.

Thetextdividesneatlyintotwoparts.ThefirsthalfisabiographyofMacrinawithinthecontextoftheirentirefamily;infact,mostofthehistoryofallthefamilymembersiswrittenhere.Thishalfcorrespondstothedescriptionsofancestry,education,anddeedsinamartyrpanegyric.ThesecondhalfrecountsGregory’svisitwithMacrina,thelastdaysofherlife,andhermovingfuneral.Almostpointforpoint,thishalfdrawsanobviouscorrespondencebetweenamartyr’sdeathandMacrina’sdeath,andthenbetweentheritualsofapanegyrisandMacrina’sfuneral.

SincetherichbiographicaldetailsofMacrina’slifewereanalyzedbefore,itisnecessaryhereonlytopointouthowGregoryconstantlystressesMacrina’s(p.151) saintlinesswithinthecontextofherfamily.ForGregory,Macrina’sachievementsprimarilytaketheirmeaningwithintheboundsoftheirfamily,asa“cohesiveunit,”inwhichallmembersparticipateineachother’sglory.229Again,thecontentofbiographyandpanegyricmeldinthediscussionofMacrina’snobleancestry.ButatthispointGregoryintroducesaninnovation:aheavenlypersonintervenesduringEmmelia’slaborandaddressesthechildas“Thecla.”ThesaintwoulddirectMacrina’slife,andEmmeliawascomplicitenoughinthisdivineplanthatallthefamilyeventuallyknewthat“Thecla”wasMacrina’ssecretname.

EveryfamilymemberintheLifeplaysasupportingroleinMacrina’slifelongpursuitofsaintliness.EachencounterwithaparentorbrotherwasanoccasionforGregorytoemphasizeMacrina’sunflinchingresolvefortheasceticlifeandherspiritualsagacity.Herstrong-willed,thoughwell-meaning,fatherisnomatchforMacrinawhen,ontheearlydeathofherbetrothed,sheconvinceshimthatshewillremainforeveravirgin.230Instagessheleadshermothertotheasceticlifeinaprocessthattookseveralyears.231MacrinasucceedsintakingBasil“inhand”despitehisconceitedattitudeabouthisrhetoricalskillsand“swiftlywinshimovertotheidealofphilosophy.”232WhenNaucratius’deathplungedtheentirefamilyintouncontrollablegrief,Macrinabravely“roseabovenature”andemergedastheemotionalandspiritualleaderofthehousehold.Sheascended“above”hernature,butclearlynotabovekinship.

Whatismoretothepoint,herqualitiesofleadershipwerecompletelyfocusedontheasceticlife.AsGregorytellsit,Macrina’slifewasaprocessofmaturingintohigherlevelsofrenunciation.Herrigorousasceticismallowedherparticipationintheranksofthemartyrs.233AsGregorylaysoutherlife,thereaderseesherprogressofconformingprogressivelyandsteadilytothemartyrs.Frombirthtodeath,Gregorychartsherlifeasaspiritualascenttomartyrdomthroughasceticdiscipline.

BythesedevicesGregoryframesMacrina’slifeinsuchawaythatfromthetimeofherbirthshewasavirginmartyrandissetapartfromherfamilyinherasceticinitiative,accomplishments,andteachingability.TheformulaicnarrativeofthebiographyofanobleChristianCappadocianwomaninterfacesseamlesslywiththefamiliarstoryofanexceptionalvirginmartyr.ItstartsatMacrina’sbirthwiththeinterventionofSt.Thecla,whohasamoreimportant(p.152) roleinshapingherlifethanhernoble,Christianparents.EachsuccessivepointinMacrina’slifegoesbeyondeverydayhumanmeaningsincesheparticipateslikeanathleteintheasceticcontests,earningheraplaceintheranksofthemartyrs.


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ThesecondhalfoftheLifeturnstoMacrina’slastdays.Gregorybeginsthestoryofherdeathwithhisdreamthatperfectlyparallelstheeventsthathadsurroundedherbirth.HisdreamechoesEmmelia’sheavenlyvision,thriceheraldingThecla’sroleinherdaughter’slife.WhenGregorywasonlyaday’sjourneyawayfromAnnesi,hedreamtthreetimesthathewasholdingtherelicsofmartyrswhosebrightlightblindedhim.234Thevisionperplexedhim.Onarrival,hefoundthatMacrinawasverysickandthathisbrotherPeterhadgoneouttomeethim.AfterconversingwithMacrinafornearlyawholeday,reminiscingabouttheirfamilyandsobbingoverBasil’sdeath,Gregoryrealizedwhatthedreamhadmeant.HissisterMacrinawastheholymartyr.“WhatIhadseenbeforemewastrulytheremainsofaholymartyr,onewhohadbeendeadtosin,butilluminedbytheindwellinggraceoftheHolySpirit.”235GregorywasdespondentaboutMacrina’sapproachingdeath,butMacrinaurgedhimtocheerup.Shewasalreadylookingtowardtheprizeofvictory,themartyr’scrown.236Macrinalongedfordeath,justasthemartyrsdid.

Attheendofthesecondday,MacrinautteredherlastprayertoGod.Justasintherecountingofamartyr’sordeal,Macrina’sprayermirrorstheconfessionofthemartyr,thetrialssheenduresbecauseofherfaith,andherhopeforeternallife.ThefirsteightlinesareapatchworkofPsalmsandotherbiblicalquotescombinedwiththeprayersofvespers.TheyexpressMacrina’sbeliefintheGodwhocreatedallhumanity,whocrushedthedevilwhohadcapturedadisobedienthumanityintherealmofdeath,andwhoultimatelyopenedthegatesofhelltoeternallifeoftheresurrection.SheaffirmsherbeliefthatthecosmicbattlehasbeenwonthroughthecrossandresurrectionofChrist.Herconfessioninallthesewaysisatruemartyr’sconfession.237

Thesecondpartofherprayerreflectsontheconsequencesofherfaith.Inamartyr’sstory,aftertheconfession,theoppressorstorturetheChristianforherfaith,andshediesapainfuldeath.Similarly,inMacrina’sprayersherecountshowshewasdedicatedtoGodfrombirthandhowshewascrucified(p.153) withGodfromthatmomentandthenthroughoutallherlife:“forIhavenailedmyfleshoutofreverenceforyouandhavefearedyourjudgments.”238Herasceticlifeofunrelentingself-abnegationbroughtherthemartyr’ssufferingeachdayofherlifeonearth.Justassomemartyrswerescourgedorflayed,MacrinaimploresGodthat“inthestrippingoffofmybodyImaybefoundwithoutstainorblemishinthebeautyofmysoul.”239AndliketheFortyMartyrswhowereburned(andnearwhomshewouldsoonbeburied),thelastlineofherprayerreferstohersoulrisingtotheLord“asanincenseofferingbeforeyourface.”240Sheendsherprayerandherlifewiththesignofthecross.

AftertwoofMacrina’sfellowvirginsreadiedherbodyforburial,theygaveGregoryherring.Itwasengravedwithacrossandcontainedasliverofthetruecrosswithin.241ThroughoutMacrina’slifetheringanditscontentshadservedasarelic,yetitsimultaneouslytranscendedtheboundariesofarelic’smeaning:shehadliterallycarriedthecrossallherlife.ForGregorytheringwouldserveforeverasarelicofhisbelovedmartyredsister.

Macrina’svigilandfuneralhadalltheelementsofapanegyrisforthemartyrs,theantiphonalchantingofpsalms,sharedresponses,andtheprocessionwithcandles.242Thelamentationstookontheovertonesofamartyr’sfestival.“Wespentthewholenightsinginghymnsaround


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herbody,justastheydoincelebratingthedeathofmartyrs.”243CrowdsofpeoplefromneighboringvillagesjoinedthefuneralprocessiontotheshrineoftheFortyMartyrsafewmilesawayatIbora.Alongwithdeacons,priests,andthreebishops,piouslaitysqueezedintothemartyrium,clamoringtotouchMacrina’sbier,“sincenobodycouldseeenoughofthatholyspectacle.”244

BeforeplacingMacrina’sbodyinthefamilytombnexttotheirparents’remains,Gregorycouldnolongercontainhisdeepfear.Hewasparalyzedwithpanicthatwhentheyopenthetomb,heshouldbreakGod’scommandandsee“theshameofhisownmotherandfather,”thenaked,decayedremainsofhisparents.GregoryhadinmindLeviticus18:6–7:“Noneofyoushallapproachanyonenearofkintouncovernakedness,IamtheLord.Youshallnotuncoverthenakednessofyourfather,whichisthenakednessofyourmother;sheisyourmother,youshallnotuncoverhernakedness.”ThatGregoryunderstood(p.154) thecommandtwoways,firstassexandsecondliterallyasseeing,isobviousfromhisnextcommentandhissolutionoutofthepredicament.245Consistentwithhistheology,hesubsumessexualintercourseintheoverridingconsequenceoftheFall:death.246Hisworryatthetombisevident:“HowwillIbefreeofsuchcondemnationifIlookatthecommonshameofhumannatureinthebodiesofmyparents,sincetheycanonlybedecomposedanddisintegratedandchangedintoahideous,repulsiveformlessness?”247

Gregoryfoundthesolution(andhishermeneuticofthecommandinLeviticus)intheactionsofShemandJapheth,twoofNoah’ssonsinGenesis9:18–27.Noah’sotherson,Ham,sawhisnakedfatherNoah,whenhewasinadrunkenstupor.Notonlydidhenotaverthisgaze,heboastedtohisbrothersaboutitafterward.ShemandJapheth,however,actedmorehonorably.TheywalkedbackwardintoNoah’spresenceand,withoutlookingathim,coveredhimupwithacloth.Withsomerelief,Gregoryimitatedthemandmadesurethataclothwaslaidoverhisparents’remainsbeforetheybecamevisible.

AstheylaidMacrina’sbodyinthetombnexttohermother,Gregory’sgriefwaspalpable.AdjacenttothetombwasthemartyriumoftheFortyMartyrs,literallywhereheavenandearthmergedinGregory’sworld,sovividlycrowdedwithfamily,thesaints,andhismemories.HismotherhadbuiltthatveryshrinewheretheFortyMartyrshadclubbedhim,aneventaffectinghimsomuchthathewaseventuallybaptized;wherehisfamily’sremainswere;andwhereallhisbelovedkinwouldriseupearlywiththemartyrsatthefinalresurrection.248Alongwithherfamily,MacrinawasnowburiednexttotheFortyMartyrs.Kissingthedustathergrave,likegreetingthemartyratthepanegyris,Nyssengavehissistervenerationasasaint,theonlyproperfarewell.

Inconsolablewhenheleft,Gregorymetatearfulsoldier,wholikehimwasalsomourningMacrina’sdeath.ThesoldiertestifiedtoMacrina’sinnumerablemiracles,whichweretheultimateproofofthepowersoftheholymartyrsandtheirworthinessofveneration.249Gregory’smagnificentverbalmemorialtohis(p.155) sistergoesfarbeyondhisstatedjustification:“alifeofthisqualityshouldnotbeforgottenforthefuture,andthatshewhohadraisedherselfthroughphilosophytothehighestlimitofhumanvirtueshouldnotpassalongthiswayveiledandinsilence.”250Rather,muchmoresimply,withtheLifeofSaintMacrina,Gregorydoesinhisrhetoricwhatamartyr’sfestivalaccomplishesinritual,“tokeepthemartyrs’memoryalive.”251


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ConclusionClearly,kinshipwiththemartyrsfunctionedastheheartofChristianpietyfortheCappadociansonavarietyoflevels.WecannowassesstheCappadocians’achievementsfromdifferentvantagepoints.Inmostways,itappearsthattheCappadocianFathersstraddledtwoverydifferentworlds—theasceticlifeandthedomesticlife—withsupremeequipoise.Andsuchadroitnessallowedthemtocreatearich,resonantsystemofrelationshipswiththemartyrsthatsustainedallChristianslikeafamily.Infact,theyviewedtheimportanceoffamily,householdorganization,andobligationsofkinshipasthemodelofChristiansocialorganization,includingmonasticism.Thoughtheyallembracedthecelibatelife,theCappadociansnever“left”theirnatalfamilies,eventhoughtheyenjoinedmembersofcoenobiticmonasteriestodoso.Theevidenceissuffusedwithexamplesoftheirextraordinarydevotiontotheirfamilymembersthroughouttheirlives.Intheirdualrolesascelibateandfamilymen,theyusedmartyrpietytoforgenewwaystoenvisionrelationshipswiththemartyrsandtopromotetheirownfamilymembers.252

AsignificantreasontheCappadociansweresosuccessfulisthatvenerationofthemartyrswasthemostpervasiveandmostpopularliturgicalactivity.Avibrantsacramentallifeforthelaitywasnotyetthenorminfourth-centuryChristianity.Mostpeopledelayedbaptismuntillateinlife,soveryfewpeoplereceivedtheHolyEucharistatliturgies.Buteverypiouscatechumencouldparticipateinpanegyreisformartyrs,whichoccurredmonthly,attheminimum.

TheCappadocianscapitalizedonthissituationbypreachingthateveryChristiancouldbecomefriendsofthemartyrs,andevenkinwiththemartyrs,throughtheirpietyandmoralbehavior.Kinshipwiththemartyrsconstitutedanadoptive,spiritualkinship,opentomonasticsandlaityalike.Ofcourse,allChristianswereurgedtoactuallybecomemartyrsthroughheroicasceticlives(p.156) andmoralaction.Butmostpeoplecouldneverachievesuchheights;andweretheytodoso,theywouldlosethereciprocal,relationalnetworkthatsupportedthemintheirdailylivesbybeingkinwiththemartyrs.

BasilandGregoryofNyssaattachedsomuchimportancetokinshipwiththemartyrsthattheyclaimedthreemostfamoussaintsasfamilialrelatives.Theirmotivesareallthemoreobviouswhenwerememberthattheirowngrandfatherwasmartyredinthelastpersecution.Yettheydonotwriteabouthim.Sts.GregoryThaumaturgus,Thecla,andtheFortyMartyrsintervenedintheirlivesinsuchawaythattheyappearparadoxicallytobebothconsanguineousandspiritualancestors.Asaresult,theprestigeoftheirownfamilywentwellbeyondallsocialparameters,reachingtheawesomerealmofthesaints.

GregoryofNazianzusjoinsNyssenintheultimatemeansforestablishingkinshipwiththemartyrs.Throughfuneralpanegyrics,epigrams,andthefamousLifeofSaintMacrina,theybothinscribetheirrecentlydeceasedfamilymembersintotheranksofthemartyrs.Notonlydidthisensuretheirkinshipwithmartyrsbutalsosoonafterwardtheirfamilymemberswereveneratedassaints.Againweseefamilyconcerns,preeminentfortheCappadocians,mergewiththepromotionofmartyrpiety.Throughkinshipwiththemartyrs,theCappadocianssucceedinbypassingtheneedforprocreation.Theirfamily’shonorisforever,eternal.Finally,theCappadociansenvisionedasystemthatwhileappropriatingandexpandingonpopularmartyrpiety,puttheirownelitepietyonahigherplane,therebyperpetuatingthe


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distinctionbetweentheirownfamiliesandthegeneralpopulace.Withsiblingsandparentsensconcedwiththemartyrs,yetstillidentifiableintheirfamilialroles,weshallnowturntoanexaminationofthefascinatingrolegenderplayedintheirascenttomartyrdomandintheirunceasingpromotionofmartyrpiety.

Notes:

(1.)RaymondVanDam,FamiliesandFriendsinLateRomanCappadocia(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2003),122;andseeAndrewJacobs,“AFamilyAffair:Marriage,Class,andEthicsintheApocryphalActsoftheApostles,”JECS7(1999):125.JacobspointsoutthatChristianrenunciationofmarriageinlateantiquityhasrepercussionsalong“socialstatuslines.”

(2.)ElizabethCastelli,MartyrdomandMemory:EarlyChristianCultureMaking(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2004),4.

(3.)Ibid.,70.

(4.)JohnDavis,PeopleoftheMediterranean(London:Routledge,Kegan,andPaul,1977),219.

(5.)BernhardJussen,SpiritualKinshipasSocialPractice,trans.PamelaSelwyn(Newark:UniversityofDelawarePress,2000),21.

(6.)Ibid.

(7.)Adoptionwasindeedanotherlegalwayofestablishingkinshipinthefourthcentury,butitdoesnotpertaintotheCappadocians’families.

(8.)AndrewT.Crislip,FromMonasterytoHospital,ChristianMonasticism&theTransformationofHealthCareinLateAntiquity(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2005),139.

(9.)MarilynDunn,TheEmergenceofMonasticism,fromtheDesertFatherstotheEarlyMiddleAges(Oxford:BlackwellPublishers,2000),34–35.

(10.)BasilofCaesarea,AnAsceticalDiscourseI,inSaintBasil,AsceticalWorks,FOTC,vol.9,trans.SisterM.MonicaWagner,C.S.C.(Washington,DC:CatholicUniversityPress,1962),207,210.Basilestablishesseparatemonasteriesforwomenandformen.

(11.)Crislip,56.

(12.)BasilofCaesarea,TheLongRules,8,inSt.Basil,AsceticalWorks,FOTC,vol.9,trans.SisterM.MonicaWagner,C.S.C.(Washington,DC:CatholicUniversityPress,1962),253.

(13.)Ibid.

(14.)Basil,AsceticalDiscourseI,Wagner,208.

(15.)Basil,LongRules,32,Wagner,295–296.


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(16.)RebeccaKrawiec,“‘FromtheWomboftheChurch’:MonasticFamilies,”JECS11(2003):285.

(17.)Crislip,59.

(18.)Basil,LongRules,8,Wagner,253.

(19.)Ibid.,LongRules,9,Wagner,257.

(20.)PaulJ.Fedwick,TheChurchandtheCharismaofLeadershipinBasilofCaesarea(Toronto:PontificalInstituteofMediaevalStudies,1979),15.

(21.)BasilofCaesarea,ShorterRules,187,inTheAsceticWorksofSt.Basil,trans.W.K.L.Clarke(London:SPCK,1925),199.

(22.)KateCooper,“ApproachingtheHolyHousehold,”JECS15(2007):133.

(23.)Basil,LongRules,8,Wagner,254;18and19,273–277;22and23,281–285;38and39,311–313;42and43,317–320;55,330–335;AsceticDiscourseI,Wagner,211.

(24.)Crislip,56.

(25.)Basil,LongRules,Wagner,313–314.

(26.)JohnMeyendorff,“ChristianMarriageinByzantium:TheCanonicalandLiturgicalTradition,”DOP44(1990):99–107.

(27.)Ibid.,104.

(28.)BasilofCaesarea,Letter188,CanonicaPrima,CanonIV,225;CanonicaSecunda,CanonsXXI,XLI,L,NPNF,vol.8,238,239,240;CononicaTertia,CanonLXXX,258.Therearethreelettersonthecanons,alladdressedtoAmphilochiusofIconium,Letters188,199,217,constitutingeighty-fourrulesandopinionsonpracticalmattersofadministrationoftheChristiancommunity.ItisnotmyintentioninmybooktodiscusstheCappadocians’viewsonthedifferencebetweenthevirgin/celibatelifeandthemarriedlife.Thatisaverydifferenttopic.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatGregoryofNyssasaidhewasnotdepreciatingmarriageasaninstitutionwhenhewroteOnVirginity.“Butourviewofmarriageisthis;that,whilethepursuitofheavenlythingsshouldbeaman’sfirstcare,yetifhecanusetheadvantagesofmarriagewithsobrietyandmoderation,heneednotdespisethiswayofservingthestate.”NyssenmentionsnothinganywhereaboutthemarriageserviceortheincorporationofmarriageintotheChurch.

(29.)Ibid.,Letter199;CanonicaSecunda,CanonXLII,329.

(30.)Meyendorff,105.Thesechurchblessingsatweddingsturnedintochurchweddingsin741bytheEcloga.Thisbecameanalternateformofconcludingalegalmarriage.InthereignofLeoVI(886–912),itwasrequiredbylawthatmarriagebe“sanctionedbythewitnessofthesacredblessing.”TheChurchfromthenonhadallrightsovermarriageanddivorce.

(31.)GregoryofNazianzus,Letter231,inSaintGrégoiredeNazianze,Lettres,vol.2,ed.


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andtrans.PaulGallay(Paris:Sociétéd’édition“lesbelleslettres,”1967),122–123.

(32.)GregoryofNazianzus,Carminaquaespectantadalios,PraisesforOlympias’Wedding,PG37.1542–1550(Poem6).ForthediscussionofVitalianusandhisfeudwithhissonsPhocasandPeter,whomhebannedfromattendingtheweddingoftheirsister,seeKristoffelDemoen,“GiftsofFriendshipthatWillRemainForever,”JbOB47(1997):4–9.SeealsoGregoryofNazianzus,LetterGallay,vol.2,163.

(33.)GregoryofNazianzus,Letter193,Gallay,vol.2,84.

(34.)Ibid.


(36.)KorbinianRitzer,LemariagedansleségliseschrétiennesduIerauXesiècle(Paris:ÉditionsduCerf,1970),136.Thepriestorbishopcrownedthecouplebyendofthesixthcentury.TheearliestartisticdepictionsofChristianmarriagearefromthefifthcentury.ThemostfamousisasoliduscommemoratingthemarriageofEmpressPulcheriaandEmperorMarcian.ItisablendofRomanandChristian:theirrighthandsarejoined,Christisthecelebrant,andhisarmsarearoundthecouple.ChristhasreplacedtheroleofConcordiainthedepiction.SeeOxfordDictionaryofByzantium(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1991),vol.2,1307.

(37.)GregoryofNazianzus,Letter232,Gallay,vol.2,123.SeeJn2:1–11,whereJesusandhismotherareattheweddingatCanaandheturnswaterintowine.

(38.)GregoryofNazianzus,OrationonHolyBaptism,NPNF,vol.7,370.

(39.)Ibid.

(40.)Ibid.

(41.)Ibid.,364.

(42.)GregoryofNyssa,Deiisquibaptismumdifferent,PG46.419.

(43.)BasilofCaesarea,Homiliaexhortatoriaadsanctumbaptisma,PG31.432.

(44.)JosephH.Lynch,GodparentsandKinshipinEarlyMedievalEurope(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1986),54–55,97.JohnChrysostomistheearliestoftheGreekFatherstotalkaboutsponsors;seehisSecondCatecheticalSermon,15–16,inBaptismalInstructionsbySaintJohnChrysostom,ACW,vol.31,trans.PaulWilliamHarkins.(Mahwah,NJ:PaulistPress,1963)48–49.SeealsoEgeria’sTravels,trans.JohnWilkinson(London:SPCK,1973),27–90;ApostolicTradition,16–19,trans.BurtonScottEaston(Hamden,CT:ArchonBooks,1962),48–49.

(45.)Jussen,119.

(46.)Ibid.


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(47.)Ibid.,369.

(48.)JosephH.Lynch,ChristianizingKinship,RitualSponsorshipinAnglo-SaxonEngland(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1998),17.

(49.)JeanBernardi,LaprédicationdesPèresCappadociens(Montpellier:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1968),68.

(50.)Baptism,Eucharist,andChrismationarethesacramentsmentionedintheearliestchurchfathers.AugustineandDionysiustheAreopagite(c.500)werethefirsttodiscussthesacramentsatlength,withDionysiusattemptingtoclassifythem.Hislistincludedordination,monasticconsecration,andthefuneralservice.

(51.)Cooper,“Approaching,”140.

(52.)Davis,172–173.


(54.)Ibid.

(55.)Ihavebasedthesesketchesontheworksofscholarscitedinthefootnotes.ForchronologyofalltheCappadocians,IhavefollowedGallay,Bernardi,Rousseau,andVanDam.ThereisconsiderabledebateconcerningthedatingofthebirthsanddeathsoftheCappadocians;seeespeciallyPierreMaraval,“RetoursurquelquesdatesconcernantBasiledeCésaréeetGrégoiredeNysse,”RHE99(2004):153–157;AnnaSilvas,GregoryofNyssa:TheLetters(Leiden:Brill,2007),1–65;BrianE.Daley,GregoryofNazianzus(London:Routledge,2006),1–34;JohnMcGuckin,SaintGregoryofNazianzus.AnIntellectualBiography(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sPress,2001).

(56.)AndewJacobs,“‘LethimGuardPietas’:EarlyChristianExegesisandtheAsceticFamily,”JECS11(2003):268.

(57.)VanDam,Families,27;BasilofCaesarea,Letters204,207,210,NPNF,vol.8,243,245–248,249.

(58.)VanDamsaysthattheunclefromCaesareaismostlikelyamaternaluncle;seeFamilies,30.Rev.BlomfeldJackson,editoroftheNPNF,vol.8,thoughthewasapaternaluncle.

(59.)Thedatesoftheirbirthsareapproximate.

(60.)PhilipRousseau,“BasilofCaesarea:ChoosingaPast,”inReadingthePastinLateAntiquity,ed.GraemeClarke(Sydney:AustralianNationalUniversityPress,1999),39.

(61.)OpinionsontheevidenceaboutTheosebeiavarywidely.SilvasthinksthatTheosebeiaisasisterandshebecameanuninMacrina’shousehold.Thoughthisisanattractivethesis,Nazianzen’sLetter197andEpigram164arewrittenlongafterMacrina’sdeath.GregoryofNyssa,Ithink,wouldhavereferredtohissisterTheosebeiaif,infact,shehadbeenlivingatMacrina’smonastery.IagreethatTheosebeiaisasisterofMacrina,Basil,andGregory,butI


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thinkshelivedsomewhereelsewithherhusband,anothermannamedGregory,thepriest.SeeSilvas,GregoryofNyssa,4.PaulGallaysetsouttheevidenceandseemstofavorthepositionthatsheisasister;seePaulGallay,SaintGrégoiredeNazianze,Lettres,vol.2,164,note3.ManyscholarsthinkthatLetter197referstoGregoryofNyssa’swife,Theosebeia,whohadrecentlydied.IdiscussthequestionofGregory’smaritalstatuslateroninthischapter—seeespeciallynote75.

(62.)GregoryofNazianzus,Epigram161,inTheGreekAnthology,VII-VIII,LCL,vol.68,trans.W.R.Paton(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2000),470–471.

(63.)Ibid.,Epigram164,Paton,470–471.“Gregory”isacommonnameintheircircles.TherearesixGregoriesinjustthesetwofamilies.

(64.)Cooper,“Approaching,”133;SusannaElm,VirginsofGod(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,1994),78.

(65.)Elm,100.


(67.)GregoryofNazianzus,Epigrams156,157,158,Paton,466–469.

(68.)Elm,83–84.

(69.)AndrewLouth,“Cappadocians,”inCambridgeHistoryofEarlyChristianLiterature,eds.FrancesYoung,LouisAyres,andAndrewLouth(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004),290.

(70.)GregoryofNyssa,Letters13,19,inLetters,GrégoiredeNysse,SC,vol.363,trans.PierreMaraval(Paris:ÉditionsduCerf,1990),198–199,248–251.

(71.)GregoryofNyssa,Encomiuminxlmartyresii,PG46.784.56–785.30.Thisincidentisalsodealtwithelsewhereinseveralothercontexts;seechapters1and2.

(72.)GregoryofNazianzus,Letter11,Gallay,vol.1,16–18,writtensometimebetween362and365;Basil,Letter14,NPNF,vol.8,124.

(73.)Rousseau,“ChoosingaPast,”51;BasilremarksinLetter210,addressedtotheNeocaesareans,thathisbrothersliveinPontus,NPNF,vol.8,249.

(74.)Rousseau,“ChoosingaPast,”49.

(75.)ChurchtraditionandmostscholarshaveheldthatGregoryofNyssawasmarriedtoawomannamedTheosebeia,basedonNazianzen’sLetter197andtwocommentsinOnVirginity.Nazianzen’sLetter197,asIhavediscussed,addressedtoGregoryofNyssa,consoleshimonthedeathofacertainTheosebeia.SeeJeanDaniélou,“LemariagedeGrégoiredeNysseetlachronologiedesavie,”REA2(1956):71–78;MichelR.Barnes,“‘TheBurdenofMarriage’andOtherNotesonGregoryofNyssa’sOnVirginity,”SP37(1999):12–19.AnnaSilvasgivesanintriguingargumentonwhyshethinksGregorywasmarried,butnottoaTheosebeia,andSilvasproposesrevisionsofdatesofhiscareerasa


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rhetorician.SeeSilvas,GregoryofNyssa,:4,15–25.SeealsothemoretraditionaldiscussioninGregoryofNazianzus,Letters,Gallay,vol.2,164,note3.Louth,too,thinksthatNyssenwasmarried,buthethinksthatTheosebeiawashissister,withwhomhelivedafterhisunnamedwifedied;thusshewasthe“helper,”or“consort”(syzygos)ofGregoryofNyssa,thepriest;seeLouth,“Cappadocians,”298,301,note9.MoutsoulasholdsthatTheosebeiaisasisterandenteredthemonasticlife;seeEliasMoutsoulas,ΓΡΗΓΟΡΙΟΣΝΥΣΣΗΣ,Βίος,Συγράμματα,Διδασκαλία(Athens:EptalophosA.B.E.E.,1997),20.IthinkthattheirsisterTheosebeiawasmarriedtoanotherpriestnamedGregory.Moreover,IdonotthinkthereissufficientevidencetosaythatGregoryofNyssawasmarried.InOnVirginity3,heclaimsthereisachasmbetweenhimandthelifeofvirginitybecausehehaschosenthesecularlife;hedoesnotsayhewasmarried.Isimplydonotknowifhewasmarried.InOnVirginity,Nyssenarguesthatchoosingalifeofvirginityallowsonetoescapetheextremelypainfulexperienceofmarriage.ThetreatiseissorhetoricallycomplexthatitisquitedifficulttodistillNyssen’spersonalposition.Hetakesmanysidesinthetreatise.Iamconvincedthat“virginity”forhimisamind-set,aphronema,havingtodowithvirtueandself-control,notmerephysicalvirginity.SeeMorwennaLudlow’sexcellentdiscussionofvirginityinGregoryofNyssa,Ancientand(Post)modern(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2007),190–201.Theonlyotherevidenceistenuous,citedinGregoryofNazianzus’Letter197andtheEpigrams161,164,theveryevidencethatclearlynamesTheosebeiaashissisterandasEmmelia’schild,GregoryofNazianzus,Letter197,Gallay,vol.2,88–90,Epigrams161,164,Paton,467–468,470–471.

(76.)ThedatingofNyssen’sworksisfilledwithproblemsandcomplications,andthereislittleagreement.ThecurrentrevisionsandpropositionsforchangingchronologyofsignificanteventsinalltheCappadocians’livesarenotconvincingand,inmyview,addmoreproblemsthantheysolve.Forthemostpart,IhavefollowedthetraditionalchronologyinconjunctionwithGallay,Bernardi,andVanDam.IamconvincedthatNyssenwroteOnVirginitysometimebetween368and370,andthatduringhisexilehewroteOntheFaith,OnNotThreeGods,OntheBaptismofChrist,andAgainstMacedonius.

(77.)GregoryofNyssa,LifeofSaintMacrina,trans.KevinCorrigan(Toronto:Peregrina,1989),32.

(78.)ThelongrelationshipbetweenEustathiusofSebasteiaandBasilisfamousforitsramificationsfortheTrinitariancontroversy,andisamplycoveredbymanyscholars.SeeRaymondVanDam,FamiliesandFriendsinLateRomanCappadocia(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2003),24–26;andRousseau,BasilofCaesarea,19–25,75–80.Elm’spositionthatBasilhonoredhisrecentlydeceasedbrotherNaucratiusbybecomingamonkisconvincingandplausible;Elm,83–84.

(79.)GregoryofNyssa,Letter19,Maraval,248–249.


(81.)Basil,Letter58,NPNF,vol.8,159;GregoryofNyssawasnotyetbishopofSasima.

(82.)Ibid.,160.


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(83.)Ibid.

(84.)Ecclus40:24.

(85.)Basil,Letter59,NPNF,vol.8,160.

(86.)Ibid.,Letter60,NPNF,vol.8,161.

(87.)Ibid.

(88.)Ibid.

(89.)Ibid.


(91.)Basil,Letter38,NPNF,vol.8,137–141.

(92.)Basil,Letters225,232,NPNF,vol.8,267,272–273.Foraninterestingdiscussionofthebrothers’relationshipsurroundingTrinitariantheology,seeJeanDaniélou,“GrégoiredeNysseàtraversleslettresdeSaintBasileetdeSaintGrégoiredeNazianze,”VC19(1965):31–41.


(94.)Ibid.,Letter225,267;Daniélou,“GrégoiredeNysse,”35–36.

(95.)Basil,Letter215,NPNF,vol.8,254–255.

(96.)Ibid.,Letters231,272;237,279;239,280.

(97.)Ibid.,Letter37,135–136.

(98.)GregoryofNazianzus,OntheDeathofHisFather,5,NPNF,vol.7,256.

(99.)GregoryofNazianzus,Epigrams136,165,Paton,460–461,472–473.

(100.)Ibid.,Epigram165;Paton,472–473.Nonna’sbrotherGregorywasapriest.

(101.)GregoryofNazianzus,OnCaesarius,4,NPNF,vol.7,230.

(102.)Bernardi,127–128.

(103.)SeethethoroughIntroductioninDaley,GregoryofNazianzus,1–60;andMcGuckin,SaintGregoryofNazianzus,23–26.

(104.)GregoryofNazianzus,OntheDeathofHisFather,11,NPNF,vol.7,258.

(105.)Ibid.,5,256.

(106.)Bernardi,127–128.


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(107.)Nazianzenwrotefourtreatisesdealingwithhissurpriseordinationandhisflight:OnEasterandHisReluctance,DefenseofHisFlighttoPontus,ToThoseWhoHadInvitedHim,andOntheEntrustingofHisFather’sChurch.SeeNPNF,vol.7,203–228,245–247.

(108.)GregoryofNazianzus,Letter49,Gallay,vol.1,63–64.

(109.)GregoryofNazianzus,OntheEntrustingofHisFather’sChurch,5,NPNF,vol.7,246.

(110.)Ibid.,OnHisSisterGorgonia,20,244.

(111.)GregoryofNazianzus,Letters12,51,52,53,54,55,157,Gallay,vol.1,19–20,66–71;vol.2,48–49.

(112.)GregoryofNazianzus,OnHisSisterGorgonia,NPNF,vol.7,238–244,especially12,13,241–242.

(113.)Ibid.,OnCaesarius,9,232;forCaesarius’knowledgeofscience,seeGregoryofNazianzus,Epigrams91,92,Paton,440–441.



(116.)GregoryofNazianzus,Epigrams32,75,76,Paton,414–416,432–433.

(117.)TomasHägg,“PlayingwithExpectations:Gregory’sFuneralOrations,”inGregoryofNazianzus,ImagesandReflections,eds.JosteinBørtnesandTomasHägg(Copenhagen:MuseumTusculanumPress,2006),146–147.

(118.)GregoryofNazianzus,OntheEntrustingofHisFather’sChurch,5,NPNF,vol.7,246.


(120.)Ibid.

(121.)Ibid.,OntheDeathofHisFather,30,264;Epigram30,Paton,414–415.

(122.)GregoryofNazianzus,Letter60,Gallay,vol.1,78.Inthesamevein,althoughthesubjectofthisletterhasnothingtodowithhonoringparents,GregoryopensLetter37thisway,“Tohonoramotherisamongtheholiestofdeeds”;Gallay,vol.1,46.Thisisaveryrevealingrhetoricalflourish.

(123.)Ibid.,Letter7,Gallay,vol.1,10.

(124.)Ibid.,10.

(125.)Ibid.

(126.)Ibid.,Letter20,Gallay,vol.1,28–29.

(127.)GregoryofNazianzus,Epigram94,Paton,440–441.


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(129.)GregoryofNazianzus,Epigrams85–100,Paton,436–445.

(130.)GregoryofNazianzuswroteatotalof254epigrams.Thisnumberdoesnotincludetheepigramshewroteforhimself.


(132.)Ibid.,Letter12,Gallay,vol.1,19–20.Nazianzenalsowrotealovelypoemof208versesforNicobulus,whomarriedhisniece;seeCarminaquaespectantadalios,Poem4,ForNicobulus,PG37.1506–1521.


(134.)Ibid.,Letters146–148,Gallay,vol.2,37–41,especially39.

(135.)Ibid.,Letter195,Gallay,vol.2,85–86.

(136.)Ibid.,Letters22–23,51–55,Gallay,vol.1,29–31,66–71;Letters167,171,174–178,187–192,Gallay,vol.2,58,60,63–69,78–83.Letters51–55aretograndnephewNicobulusabouteducation,andLetters22,23,167,171,174–178aretoEudoxiustherhetorforgrandnephewNicobulus;Letters187–192aretoEudoxius,andrhetorsStagirius,andEustochiusforgrandnephewNicobulus’education.HealsowrotePoem5forhisbelovedgrandnephew;seeCarminaquaespectantadalios,PG37.1521–1542.SeethediscussionofGregory’srelationshipwiththeseprofessionalrhetorsinNeilMcLynn,“AmongtheHellenists:GregoryandtheSophists,”inGregoryofNazianzus,ImagesandReflections,eds.JosteinBørtnesandTomasHägg(Copenhagen:MuseumTusculanumPress,2006),215–218,235,237.


(138.)GregoryofNazianzusdoesnotclaimkinshipwithamartyrforhimselforanyofhisfamily.Hedoeswriteabouthisfamilyasmartyrs,andthatwillbedealtwithlaterinthischapter.

(139.)Seechapter1fordiscussionofBasil’sdefenseagainsttheNeocaesareans.

(140.)Basil,Letter204,NPNF,vol.8,244.Letter223alsomentionsthatbothhismotherandhisgrandmother,ElderMacrina,taughthimaboutGod;263;RaymondVanDam,“HagiographyandHistory:TheLifeofGregoryThaumaturgus,”CA1(1982):283.


(142.)Ibid.,Letter204,243.

(143.)GregoryofNyssa’sversionofthelifeofGregoryofThaumaturgusisdiscussedbrieflyinchapter1.

(144.)Bernardi,308.


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(145.)Ibid.;VanDam,“Hagiography,”286–287,307;StephenMitchell,“TheLifeandLivesofGregoryThaumaturgus,”inPortraitsofSpiritualAuthority,eds.J.W.DrijversandJ.W.Watt(Leiden:Brill,1999),120–128.

(146.)WilliamTelfer,“TheCultofSt.GregoryThaumaturgus,”HTR29(1936):232–233.HowGregoryofNyssausesThaumaturgustopromotetheauthenticityofthecreedisdealtwithinchapter1.

(147.)GregoryofNyssa,TheLifeofGregorytheWonderworker,14,15,inSt.GregoryThaumaturgus,LifeandWorks,FOTC,vol.98,trans.MichaelSlusser(Washington,DC:CatholicUniversityPress,1998),83–84.

(148.)StephenMitchell,Anatolia,Land,Men,andGodsinAsiaMinor,theRiseoftheChurch,vol.2(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1993),55.MarioGirardi,BasiliodiCesareaeilcultodeimartirinelIVsecolo,Scritturaetradizione,Quadernidi“VeteraChristianorum”21(Bari:InstitutodiStudiclassiciecristiani,UniversitàdiBari,1990),197–198.

(149.)HippolyteDelehaye,Sanctus,Essaisurlecultedessaintsdansl’Antiquité(Brussels:SociétédesBollandistes,1927),114.ThecultofGregoryThaumaturguswasoneoftheoldestforabishop,althoughitsoriginisunknown.RufinusknewGregoryThaumaturgusasamartyr.

(150.)RaymondVanDam,BecomingChristian,TheConversionofRomanCappadocia(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2003),79;Mitchell,“LifeandLives,”123.

(151.)ArnaldoMomigliano,“TheLifeofSt.MacrinabyGregoryofNyssa,”inOnPagans,Christians,andJews(Middletown,CT:WesleyanUniversityPress,1987),206–221,especially209.

(152.)StephenDavis,TheCultofSaintThecla:ATraditionofWomen’sPietyinLateAntiquity(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001),40–45;TomasHägg,TheNovelinAntiquity(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1983),159.

(153.)Delehaye,Sanctus,147.

(154.)Davis,80.

(155.)VanDam,Families,105.

(156.)GregoryofNyssa,LifeofSaintMacrina,Corrigan,28.

(157.)FrancineCardman,“WhoseLifeIsIt?TheVitaMacrinaeofGregoryofNyssa,”SP37(1999):35.

(158.)Girardi,197–198.


(160.)MoniqueAlexandre,“Lesnouveauxmartyrs.Motifsmartyrologiquesdanslaviedessaintsetthèmeshagiographiquesdansl’ÉlogedesmartyrschezGrégoiredeNysse,”inThe


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BiographicalWorksofGregoryofNyssa.ProceedingsoftheFifthInternationalColloquiumonGregoryofNyssa,PatristicMonographSeries,vol.12,ed.AndreasSpira(Cambridge,MA:PhiladelphiaPatristicsFoundation,1984),38.

(161.)PhilipRousseau,“ThePiousHouseholdandtheVirginChorus,ReflectionsonGregoryofNyssa’sLifeofMacrina,”JECS13(2005):172.

(162.)LisaMaugansDriver,“TheCultoftheMartyrsinAsteriusofAmaseia’sVisionoftheChristianCity,”CH74(2005):245.

(163.)GrégoiredeNysse:ViedeSainteMacrine,inGrégoiredeNysse:ViedeSainteMacrine,ed.andtrans.PierreMaraval,SC,vol.178(Paris:ÉditionsduCerf,1971),88.

(164.)Alexandre,34–46.

(165.)GregoryofNyssa,Encomiuminxlmartyresii,PG46.784.56–785.30.Nyssendoesnotsaythathewasbaptizedasaresultofthisincident,buttorelatethedramaoftheeventandthegreateffectithaduponhislifeindicateshowpowerfulitwasforhim.Healsosaysspecificallythathewasstillalaypersonwhenthemartyrsvisitedhiminadream.Soonafterwardhewasbaptized.HeclaimsMacrinaandBasilashisteachers,butthedramaticspiritualinterventioninhislifeisreservedfortheFortyMartyrs.

(166.)VanDam,BecomingChristian,141.

(167.)Bernardi,304.

(168.)Driver,245.

(169.)Girardi,179.

(170.)BasilofCaesarea,Letter252,TLG2040.05–06,mytranslation;seealsothetranslationinNPNF,vol.8,292.

(171.)BasilofCaesarea,HomilyontheFortyMartyrsofSebaste,in“LetUsDiethatWeMayLive,”GreekHomiliesonChristianMartyrsfromAsiaMinor,Palestine,andSyria,ed.andtrans.JohanLeemans,WendyMayer,PaulineAllen,andBoudewijnDehandschutter(London:Routledge,2003),68.



(174.)Itisbeyondtheintentionofmyinquirytoanalyzetheliterarygenreoftheepitaphioslogos.HägghasprovidedathoroughliteraryanalysisofGregoryofNazianzus’funeralencomiaforhisfamily.SeeHägg,“PlayingwithExpectations,”133–151.

(175.)HippolyteDelehaye,Lespassionsdesmartyrsetlesgenreslittéraires(Brussels:SociétédesBollandistes,1921),184,202;Leemans,22–23.Afullerdiscussionofthepanegyricstothemartyrsisinchapter4.


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(176.)Hägg,“PlayingwithExpectations,”137,footnote16.

(177.)Delehaye,Lespassions,187.

(178.)StephanosEfthymiadis,“TwoGregoriesandThreeGenres,”inGregoryofNazianzus,ImagesandReflections,eds.JosteinBørtnesandTomasHägg(Copenhagen:MuseumTusculanumPress,2006),240.

(179.)Ibid.Efthymiadis’pointaboutGregoryhavingwrittenhisownautohagiographyforlatergenerationsonlystrengthensmypointhere;seeespecially245–249.

(180.)PeterBrown,“EnjoyingtheSaintsinLateAntiquity,”EME9(2000):12.HecitestheexampleofmatronProiectaofRome.“Damasushadnohesitationaboutwritingofherasifshewerealreadyinheaven,withthemartyrs,andevenhintedthat,fromheaven,shenowbroughtcomforttoherentirefamily.”

(181.)Delehaye,Lespassions,187

(182.)Ibid.,188.

(183.)GregoryofNazianzus,Discours42–43,inGrégoiredeNazianze,SC,vol.384,trans.JeanBernardi(Paris:ÉditionsduCerf,1992),29.


(185.)Ibid.,12,233.

(186.)Ibid.,14,234.

(187.)Ibid.,17,235.

(188.)GregoryofNazianzus,Epigrams52,77,99,Paton,424–425,432–433,442–443.

(189.)GregoryofNazianzus,OnHisSisterGorgonia,NPNF,vol.7,238–245.

(190.)GregoryofNazianzus,Discours6–12,inGrégoiredeNazianze,SC,vol.405,trans.Marie-AngeCalvet-Sebasti(Paris:ÉditionsduCerf,1978),38.

(191.)GregoryofNazianzus,OnHisSisterGorgonia,6,NPNF,vol.7,239.

(192.)Ibid.,8,240.

(193.)Ibid.

(194.)Momigliano,212.

(195.)ThisepisodeofGorgonia’smiracleisdealtwithmorefullyinchapter4.

(196.)GregoryofNazianzus,OnHisSisterGorgonia,23,NPNF,vol.7,245.

(197.)Ibid.


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(199.)GregoryofNazianzus,OntheDeathofHisFather,NPNF,vol.7,255–269.

(200.)Nonna’smiraclesdoqualifyherasamartyr,butthesewillbedealtwithinchapter4.

(201.)JohnMcGuckin,“Gregory:TheRhetoricianasPoet,”inGregoryofNazianzus,ImagesandReflections,eds.JosteinBørtnesandTomasHägg(Copenhagen:MuseumTusculanumPress,2006),204–205.


(203.)Ibid.,Epigrams52,424–425;77,432–433;99,442–443.

(204.)Ibid.,Epigrams33,416–417;52b(quamartyr),424–425.36(miracleworker),35(intercessor).

(205.)Ibid.,Epigram33,416–417.

(206.)Ibid.,Epigrams68,74,430–431,emphasisadded.

(207.)Ibid.,Epigram52,424–425,emphasisadded.

(208.)Ibid.,Epigram37,418–419,emphasisadded.

(209.)GregoryofNazianzus,PanegyriconSt.Basil,6,NPNFvol.7,397.

(210.)Ibid.,74,420.

(211.)GregoryofNazianzus,Discours42–43,Bernardi,33.

(212.)Ibid.,37.

(213.)GregoryofNazianzus,PanegyriconSt.Basil,80,NPNF,vol.7,421.

(214.)Ibid.,422.

(215.)Ibid.


(217.)GregoryofNyssa,Encomiuminxlmartyresii,PG46.776.9–14;Bernardi,265,304.

(218.)ThoughJeanRobertPouchetandPierreMaravalhavefullyarguedforachangeofdateforBasil’sdeathto378,Iamnotconvinced.SeeJeanRobertPouchet,“Ladatedel’électionépiscopaledesaintBasileetcelledesamort,”RHE87(1992):5–33.


(220.)GregoryofNyssa,EulogyforBasiltheGreat,trans.RichardMcCambly.Available:http://www.sage.edu/faculty/salmond/nyssa/basil.html,1–22.Thoughtwoyearsbefore,inthe


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secondhomilyontheFortyMartyrs,Nyssencalledhisbrothera“saintwhoservedthesaints,”thepraisesforhisbrotherthereareconsistentwiththisfuneralpanegyric.Heisagreatteacher,wisestatesman,andaccomplishedbishop.GregoryofNyssa,Encomiuminxlmartyresii,PG46.776.1–16.Seealsochapter2,thesection“EkphrasisasPedagogy.”

(221.)GregoryofNyssa,EulogyforBasiltheGreat,McCambly,19.


(223.)GregoryofNyssa,EulogyforBasiltheGreat,McCambly,12.

(224.)Ibid.,14.

(225.)Ibid.,18.

(226.)VanDam,Families,79.

(227.)DerekKrueger,“WritingandtheLiturgyofMemoryinGregoryofNyssa’sLifeofMacrina,”JECS8(2000):501;GregoryofNyssa,ViedeSainteMacrine,Maraval,25.

(228.)Krueger,506.

(229.)Rousseau,“ThePiousHousehold,”172.


(231.)Ibid.,31.

(232.)Ibid.,32.

(233.)Alexandre,39.


(235.)Ibid.,43;GregoryofNyssa,ViedeSainteMacrine,Maraval,32–34.


(237.)ThoughGregoryframestheprayerinitiallywiththe“brideofChrist”imagery,castingMacrinaasthebridefinallyabouttoattainherbeloved,herprayerconveysnoneofthis.Herprayerisadefenseboldlydeclaiminghersufferingequaltothatofamartyr(thoughobviouslyhepennedtheprayeraswell).

(238.)GregoryofNyssa,LifeofSaintMacrina,Corrigan,49.Italicsaddedforemphasis.

(239.)Ibid.

(240.)Ibid.

(241.)Ibid.,54.


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(242.)GregoryofNyssa,ViedeSainteMacrine,Maraval,84–85.


(244.)Ibid.,57.

(245.)“Touncovernakedness”isabiblicaleuphemismforsexualintercourse.Lv18:1–30specifiessexualprohibitionsformaintenanceofthehonorofthefamily.Italicsaddedforemphasis.SeeMichaelD.Coogan,ed.,NewOxfordAnnotatedBible(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2001),168–169.

(246.)GregoryofNyssa,OnVirginity,XIII,NPNF,vol.5,359.“Weshouldweanourselvesfromthislifeintheflesh,whichhasaninevitablefollower,death….Itcouldnotbeindeedthatdeathshouldceaseworkingaslongasthehumanracebymarriagewasworkingtoo.”Gregoryalwaysallowsthatsexualintercourseleadingtoprocreationistheremedialmechanismpreventinghumanity’sextinctionaftertheFall.

(247.)GregoryofNyssa,LifeofSaintMacrina,Corrigan,59.ThathedwellssomuchonthecharacteristicsofadeadbodyinthispassageisproofenoughthathehassubsumedthesexualconnotationoftheLeviticusinjunctioncompletelyinsex’stheologicalandontologicalramification—death.

(248.)Girardi,177.

(249.)Macrina’smiraclesarediscussedatlengthinchapter4ofthisbook.


(251.)GregoryofNyssa,FirstHomilyontheFortyMartyrs,Ib,Leemans,98.

(252.)Jacobs,280.

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