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J. Randall Webber, MPH, CADCJRW Behavioral Health Services
www.randallwebber.com
www.linkedin.comEmerging Drugs of Abuse discussion group
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Psychoactivity
Addiction
Tolerance
Toxicity
Psychiatric Impairment
Set and setting
Substance misrepresentation/misidentification
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Schedules I-V
Schedule I: High potential for abuse, tendency to produce dependence, no accepted medical use in US
Schedules II-V: Potential for abuse, tendency to produce dependency, does have accepted medical application
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Chemical (7-chloro-1,3-dyhydro-1-methyl-5-phenyl-2H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one
Generic: diazepam
Brand : Valium
Street: No common street names for Valium
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potency = strength, compared to some other drug of a similar type.
purity = the major determinant of potency. The more pure the drug, the more potent.
Street drugs are seldom pure, but are commonly misrepresented in one of three ways
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adulteration: (to adulterate = to "step on"/"hit"/"dance on" "cut" a drug).
Substitution/misrepresentation-1: None of the alleged drug is present, but another drug/drugs is/are.
substitution/misrepresentation -2: None of the alleged drug is present, and neither is any other drug or active substance.
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Onset of action: How quickly does the drug produced it’s effect?
Duration of action: How long does the drug’s effect last?
Residual effects: After-effects, extended drug reaction, flashbacks
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Ingestion (oral): slower onset/longer duration
Insufflation (sniffing/snorting): faster onset/shorter duration
Intravenous (I.V.) Injection: faster onset (seconds)/shortest duration
Smoking: fastest onset/shortest duration
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A highly pleasurable sensation produced by
the instantaneous effect of i. v. injection or
smoking*
* If entire dose administered at once
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The break-down of a drug into simpler substances
The removal of the drug from the body
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Homeostasis
The human body’s natural tendency to move toward a state of equilibrium
or constancy
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Need to increase the dose of a drug in order to obtain the desired effect
Decreased effect of drug after repeated administration
Dependent on prior dosage level
Develops in hours (cocaine), days (LSD), or weeks
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Effective dose (ED)
Intoxicating dose (ID)
Lethal dose (LD)
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What percentage of first-time users will enjoy the effect of the drug enough that they will seek it out again?
If an individual uses the drug on a regular basis, how likely is it that s/he will become dependent on the substance?
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After being introduced to the drug, do sub-human
animals (e.g., monkeys, rats, mice) seek out
opportunities to self-administer the substance? Do
they do so to the exclusion of eating, consuming water
and engaging in reproductive behavior?
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Ability to stimulate the brain’s reward circuits
Ability to meet a individualized neurochemical need
Physical dependency potential
Intensity of withdrawal symptoms
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Serotonin (5-HT)
Norepinephrine (NE)
Dopamine (DA)
Acetylcholine (Ach)
Glutamate (GLU)
Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)
N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)
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DRUG NEUROTRANSMITTER
LSD Serotonin
Methamphetamine Norepinephrine
heroin Endorphins
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DRUG NEUROTRANSMITTER
THC Anandamide
PCP Receptor site identified but not associated neurotransmitter
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Ability to produce physical damage to the human body
Long-range = months, years
Short-range = days, weeks
Physical vs behavioral
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Ability of drug to produce negative changes in thinking, learning, perception, mood or behavior
Acute vs chronic
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Short-term
Long-term
Affective Disorders
Thought Disorders
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High risk: Volatile solventsToluene
Xylene
Trichlorethylene
Gasoline
Lower riskNitrous oxide (“laughing gas”)
Amyl/butyl nitrite
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Cocaine
Amphetamine (Adderall)
Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse)
Methamphetamine
Methylphenidate (Ritalin/Concerta)
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High addiction potential
Tolerance develops
Withdrawal symptoms minimal
Moderate to high potential for immediate physical toxicity
Moderate potential for long-term toxicity
Moderate to high potential for acute psychiatric impairment
Low to moderate potential for chronic psychiatric impairment
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Cocaine:
Short-acting drug, with a duration of 5-60 minutes.
Cocaine can be snorted, injected or smoked, but it is relatively ineffective when swallowed.
Tolerance to cocaine can develop and then disappear in a matter of hours.
When snorted tends to do much more severe damage to the nasal area.
Produces local anesthesia
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Addiction potential low
Tolerance develops rapidly
Withdrawal symptoms absent or extremely minimal
Low potential for immediate or long-term physical toxicity
Moderate potential for acute psychiatric impairment
Low potential for chronic psychiatric impairment
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LSD
Psilocybin
Relatively safe
NBOMe series-Not so much
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Lower riskLSD
Psilocybin
Peyote/mescaline
Higher riskAnticholinergics
NBOMe compounds
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Pop quiz: What is “Molly”?
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“Ecstasy”
“Molly”
“Flat”/”Chicago Mints” (Chicago)
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Phencyclidine (PCP)
Ketamine
Dextromethorphan (DXM)
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EndocannabinoidsCB1 CB2
MarijuanaTHC
CBD
Other cannabinoids
Hashish
ConcentratesHash oil
Shatter
Wax
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Effects:Euphoria
Dreaminess
Introspective mood
Hilarity
Heightened perception
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Effects (side):Bloodshot eyes
Forgetfulness
Increased pulse
Dry mouth
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Effects (undesired):Confusion
Paranoia
Derealization
Depersonalization
Panic
Anxiety
Psychosis (rare)
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Cannabis hyperemesis syndrome (CHS)Vomiting
Abdominal pain
May be relieved by hot showers (?)
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Addiction potential low to moderate
Tolerance develops to some symptoms of intoxication
Physical dependence withdrawal symptoms mild
Immediate and long-term physical toxicity potential appears moderate to low
Immediate psychiatric impairment potential low to moderate/chronic psychiatric impairment may be moderate for adolescents
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Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Endocannabinoids
Synthetic cannabinoids
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Addiction potential high
Tolerance develops
Physical dependence withdrawal symptoms moderate to serious/not life-threatening
Immediate physical toxicity potential (overdose) moderate to high
Long-term physical toxicity potential low
Acute and chronic psychiatric impairment potential low
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Heroin
Hydrocodone/Vicodin/Norco
Oxycodone (OxyContin/Percodan)
Hydromorphone (Dilaudid)
Oxymorphone (Opana)
Fentanyl (Sublimaze)
UR-47700
Other synthetic opioids
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Sedation (“nodding”)
Euphoria
Pain relief
Constipation
Constricted pupils
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Sedation (“nodding”)
Euphoria
Pain relief
Constipation
Constricted pupils
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Signs of w/d:Drug hunger (craving)
Dilated pupils
Yawning
Lacrimation (eyes tear)
Rhinitis (runny nose)
Fever
Restlessness
Stomach, leg and back cramps
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Signs of w/d:
Insomnia
Nausea
Diarrhea
Vomiting
Chills/cold flashes with goose bumps ("cold turkey“)
Sweating
Leg spasms (“kicking the habit”)
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Signs of w/d:Rapid pulse
Increased blood pressure
Anxiety
Depression
Muscle and bone pain
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Providing opioid agonist or partial agonist medication as an adjunct to psychosocial treatment in order to improve engagement, retention and outcomes.
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Methadone
Clonidine
Buprenorphine
Naltrexone
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MAT clients are still addicted
Truth: MAT clients will experience withdrawal symptoms if they stop taking methadone. However, withdrawal is not a diagnostic criteriuum when the client is taking opioids solely under medical supervision
DSM-V requires at least 2 criteria out of a possible 11
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Methadone is treatment
Truth: Methadone is an adjunct to treatment (“Medication-assisted treatment”).
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Opiate dependence is a choice
Truth: The decision to begin using opiates is a choice. Addiction is a disease.
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Pregnant opiate addicts should discontinue use and detoxify via methadone taper
Truth: Perinatologists/neonatologists recommend that pregnant addicts be maintained on methadone. Withdrawal from opiates may pose a risk to the fetus
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PROFILE FOR POTENTIAL PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC AGENT
Effective after oral administration
Long biological half-life (>24 hours)
Minimal side effects during chronic administration
Safe, no true toxic or serious adverse effects
Efficacious for a substantial % of persons with the
disorder
opiate Agonist Treatment of Addiction - Payte - 1998
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Methadone
Clonidine
Buprenorphine
Naltrexone
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Reduction of criminal activity
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Client is accessed for physical dependency (a requirement for methadone treatment)
A starting dose is administered
Client is observed for effects of starting dose
Dose is increased if necessary
Client participation in program is ruled out if low dose of methadone causes sedation
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Heroin
Usually administered by injection of smoking
Rapid onset of action
Tolerance continuously increases
Use is specifically for the sedating & euphoric effect
Methadone
Administered by mouth
Slow onset of action
No continuing increase in tolerance levels after optimal dose is reached; relatively constant dose over time
Client on stable dose rarely experiences euphoric or sedating effects
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Heroin
Client feels less physical pain
Has blunted emotions
Can not drive or perform daily tasks normally and safely
Methadone
Client able toPerceive pain
Experience have emotional reactions
Perform daily tasks normally and safely
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Heroin
Short-acting: effect lasts 4-6 hours
May produce medical consequences based on adulteration and method of administration
Methadone
Long acting: prevents withdrawal for 24 hours, permitting once-a day-dosing
At sufficient dosage, blocks euphoric effect of normal street doses of heroin
Medically safe when used on long-term basis (10 years or more)
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Legal
Avoids needles
Known amount ingested
• Slow onset: no “rush”
• Long acting: can maintain “comfort” or normal brain function
• Stabilized physiology, hormones, tolerance
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Methadone:is a safe medication when used properly
Does not cause intoxication if used appropriately
Is an adjunct to treatment
Blocks withdrawal symptoms/effects of other opiates
Reduces crime, death, HIV conversion & costs to society
Benefits the client, the community and the human services, child welfare and criminal justice system
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A substance that has an anti-morphine effect, and that
occupies but does not activate the opiate receptor site.
Antagonists block the effects of opiates by binding to
receptors without stimulating them
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Full: No agonist effect. Completely blocks opiate receptors
naloxone (Narcan)
naltrexone (Rivea)
Partial: Agonist effect at low doses and an antagonist
effect at higher doses.
Talwin (pentazocine)
Talwin-NX (pentozocine with naloxone)
Nubain (nalbuphine)
Buprenorphine
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Buprenorphine (Buprenex)
Subutex® (buprenorphine sublingual tablets).
Suboxone® (buprenorphine and naloxone sublingual
tablets).
Naloxone is not effective as an agonist unless it is
injected
Guards against cooking and injecting Suboxone
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Individuals with more severe heroin habits (need methadone ≥ 100 mg)
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Addiction potential moderate to high
Tolerance develops
Physical dependence withdrawal symptoms moderate to severe/life-threatening
Physical toxicity (overdose) potential high/other immediate & long-term physical toxicity low
Low potential for psychiatric impairment
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Tremor
Agitation
Insomnia
Sweating
Elevated pulse and blood pressure
Sensory hypersensitivity
(Stomach cramps)
(Nausea/vomiting)
Seizures
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Xanax (alprazolam)
Klonopin (clonazepam)
Valium (diazepam)
Ativan (lorazepam)
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DEA says kratom is dangerous and should not be used by physicians in treating patients
NIDA is studying kratom as a possible alternative to methadone
Other researchers are also studying kratom
All non-government research will stop when kratom is placed in Schedule I
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Drank
Syrup
Sizzup
Lean
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12 Oz. Beer @ 6% alcohol =
4 oz wine @ 12% alcohol =
1.25 oz spirits @ 80 proof (40%) alcohol =
1 oz spirits @ 100 proof (50%) alcohol
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small amounts of alcohol absorbed by the mouth
most alcohol enters bloodstream from stomach, small intestine and colon
rate of absorption dependent on gastric emptying time
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absorption delayed by presence of food in the small intestine
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occurs primarily in the liver
Proportionate to body weight
A small amount of alcohol is detoxified by the microsomal enzyme oxidation system
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Alcohol
alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)
Acetaldehyde-
acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD-H)
Acetic acid (acetate)
CO2 & H20
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In heavy alcohol drinkers, liver enzymes will show an increase, especially:
➢ SGOT (serum oxaloacetic tranaminase)
➢ SGPT (serum glutamic pyruvic tranaminase)
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Alcohol Flush Reaction
facial flushing
vasodilation
tachycardia
headache
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Alcohol Flush Reaction
nausea
vomiting
edema (fluid build-up/”water weight”)
hypotension
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BAL Behavior
0.05% Relaxation, decreased inhibitions & alertness, possible personality change
0.08 Legal level in Illinois for DUI
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BAL Behavior
0.10 Slowed reaction time, impaired judgment, personality changes
0.15 Large, consistent in reaction time, increasing intoxication, mood/personality changes
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BAL Behavior
0.20 Significant impairment of sensory and motor functions, marked intoxication
0.25 Severe motor and sensory disturbance, staggering gait, marked intoxication
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BAL Behavior
.30 Semi-stupor, marked decrease in awareness and breathing rate, blackouts
.35 Surgical anesthesia, level of LD1, minimal level normally required to cause death
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BAL Behavior
0.40 LD50
• On average, fifty percent of drinkers with a blood alcohol level of 0.40 will die of alcohol poisoning.
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IN GENERAL, AT THE SAME LEVEL OF ALCOHOL COSUMPTION, WOMEN ACHIEVE A HIGHER BAC THAN MEN
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mouth
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine (colon)
rectum
anus
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salivary glands
pancreas
liver
gallbladder
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Responsible for:
• ingestion, digestion, absorption of food
• ingestion, absorption, and breakdown of some drugs
• the elimination of solid wastes.
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Esophagitis
Peptic Ulcer Disease
Hemorrhagic pancreatitis
Uric acid elevation---Gout
Hyperglycemia
Alcoholic hepatitis
Gastritis
Pancreatitis
Pancreatic insufficiency
Hypoglycemia
Alcoholic fatty liver (hepatosis)
Cirrhosis
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ALCOHOL AND LIVER DISEASE
Alcohol-induced liver disease (ALD) is a major cause of illness and death in the United States.
Alcoholic fatty liver (hepatosis), the most common form of ALD, is reversible with abstinence.
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Paralysis of cilia
Fluid accumulates in the nose, pharynx, larynx, and vocal chords ("whiskey voice"/hoarseness)
Lung/esophageal cancer
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Compared to non-alcoholics, the brains of alcoholics:
contain fewer nerve cells, fewer connections among cells, less white and grey matter, and larger ventricles.
This “cerebral atrophy” is associated with impairment of intellect.
The underlying mechanism of brain damage appears to be a direct toxic action of alcohol on nerve cells
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Wernicke Korsakoff Syndrome
• Results from thiamin deficiency
• Disorientation
• Confusion
• Apathy
• Inattentivenss
• Nystagmus
• Gaze paralysis
• Retrobulbar neuropathy
- transient blindness/spots in visual field
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Wernicke Korsakoff Syndrome
• Ataxia
• Korsakoff: Severe memory problems (retrograde and antegrade)
• Confabulation
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Mechanisms
- irritation of cells
- liver damage
- nutritional deficiencies
- carcinogenic congeners
- interaction with tobacco (effect on lungs and inhibition of salivation)
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Women who consume two or more drinks per week while pregnant have a higher risk of spontaneous abortion.
Most spontaneous abortions occur during the second trimester.
Source: Harlap & Shiono (1980)
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Drinking while pregnant increases the risk of stillbirth.
Stillbirths can occur after heavy drinking in the last trimester.
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Prenatal alcohol exposure is one of the leading known causes of mental retardation in the Western World
Prenatal and/or postnatal growth retardation (weight and/or length below the 10th percentile);
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• Anxiety
• Agitation
• Hypertension
• Eating Disturbances (e.g., anorexia)
• Paroxysmal Sweats
• Tachycardia
• Hyperreflexia
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• Sleep Disturbances (e.g., insomnia/poor quality of sleep)
• Sensorium clouded (disorientation)
• Hyperthermia/Hyperpyrexia
• Tremor ("the shakes")
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All of the signs of stage 1, but increased severity
Begins within 48 hours of last drink
Distinguishing feature is appearance of hallucinations➢ Auditory, but may be visual
➢ Usually non threatening
➢ Patient/client usually has insight into their benign nature
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An acute, reversible organic psychosis
Usually begins after ~72 hours after the last drink
Duration: two to six days
All signs and symptoms listed in Stage 1, but greatly increased severity
Hallucinations: may now include olfactory and/or tactile manifestations➢ Hallucinations may be fused
➢ Patient/client lacks insight into benign nature of hallucinations
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Disorientation (person, place, time)
Misidentification common
Emotional Lability
Anxious, fearful
Depressed, apathetic
Angry
Euphoric
Agitation often becomes more pronounced after sunset
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Administration of thiamin (100 mg/day) to avoid Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome
Many patients/clients will need little or no additional medication during withdrawal
Medication of withdrawal should not begin while the patient is at 0.15 BAL or above
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Alcohol is cross-reactive and cross tolerant with most commonly used, non-neuroleptic sedatives (tranquilizers and hypnotics). These include:➢ All of the benzodiazepines (Ativan, Xanax, Valium, etc.)
➢ All barbiturates (phenobarbital, secobarbital/Seconal, etc.)
➢ Most non barbiturate hypnotics (Dalmane, Placidyl, Doriden)
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Long acting benzodiazepines (chlordiazepoxide/Librium) are drug of choice
Depends on patient characteristics:➢ Liver disease
➢ Nausea and vomiting
➢ Known potential for seizures
➢ Pregnancy
➢ Advanced age
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Rates of alcoholism among the relatives of
alcoholics are significantly higher than among
the relatives of non-alcoholics, with children
of alcoholics showing a 3-4X greater risk of
developing the disorder.
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Cloninger and his associates have identified two types of alcoholism based on:
the biological parents’ pattern of alcohol abuse
the degree to which postnatal environmental factors affect the inheritance of a susceptibility to alcoholism
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predominates among female alcoholics and their male relatives
characterized by:
loss of control over drinking after the age of 25
pronounced environmental reactivity to drinking
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minimal criminality
“passive-aggressive” traits
high degrees of harm avoidance, reward dependence;
low levels of novelty-seeking
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predominates among male alcoholics and their male relatives
less dependency on environmental factors
more associated criminality
personality traits are the opposite of the milieu-limited alcoholic
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PRINCIPLES
OF
ADDICTION
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The Public Health Triad
Agent
Host
Environment
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Principle of Homeostasis
The human body operates within certain
physiological limits which act to
maximize the potential for both
immediate and long survival
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Principle of Access:
For a substance to display psychoactive
properties, it must be capable of
crossing the blood-brain barrier and
interacting with the human
neurotransmitter system.
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Principle of Adaptation
The relationship between a person and a
psychoactive drug evolves dynamically
as the body and the psyche change to
incorporate the drug’s presence or
absence
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Specification Principle
All drug-person interactions are
potentially idiosyncratic
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Risk Principles
Drug experimentation decisions are
influenced by the ratio between the
potential benefits of using a drug and the
potential risks of taking a drug.
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Risk Amplification:
Combining drug consumption risk
factors dramatically increases the
potential for harm to self and others.
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Dose-response Principle I
It is not possible to predict the effects of
a particular drug without first defining
the dosage of the drug that is to be
ingested
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Dose-response Principle II
The quantity of a drug consumed within
a specified time is directly related to the
magnitude of the drug response
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Categories of Dosage
Packaged dose
Event dose
Cumulative dose
ED (effective dose)
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Categories of Dosage
ED (effective dose)
ED1, ED50, Etc.
LD (lethal dose)
LD1, LD50, Etc.
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Priming Dose
The quantity of a drug sufficient to move
a particular person from sustained non-
problematic to sustained problematic
drug use
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Principles of Purity and Adulteration
The untoward effects of a particular drug
containing multiple and complex
ingredients may be related, not to the
drug’s primary psychoactive ingredient,
but to secondary ingredients or
additives.
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Principles of Purity and Adulteration
The risk associated with drug-taking can
be either increased or decreased when
the purity of the substance is altered
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Potency Principle I
Throughout American history, our
understanding of particular drugs has
been confounded by the appearance of
new and more potent forms of drugs with
altered effects and addiction potential.
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Potency Principle II
Any change in the potency of a known
drug may require a parallel
reevaluation of the drug’s effects and
addiction potential.
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Drug Form Principle I
Changing the form of a drug can, by
influencing dose, rapidity of onset, and
duration of action, increase or decrease
the drug’s abuse potential
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Drug Form Principle III:Analogues
Minor changes in the molecular structure
of a drug can provoke devastatingly
different effects
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Speed of Onset Principle
Drugs with a rapid onset of action tend
to have a higher risk of misuse than
drugs with a slower onset of action
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Duration of Effect Principle II
Short-acting drugs (Xanax, heroin) have
the potential for more severe but shorter
withdrawal than long-acting drugs
(Librium, methadone, phenobarbital)
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Speed of Elimination Principle
The risks of drug use are influenced by
the length of time require to metabolize
and eliminate the drug from the body
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Method of Administration Principle I
Any alteration in a drug’s method of
administration may require a redefinition
of the risks associated with use of the
drug, including its addiction potential.
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Method of Administration Principle II
In some cases, the route of
administration is a potentially riskier
factor than the effect of the substance
being administered
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Drug Interaction Principle I
Risks of untoward consequences from
drug use arise in the transition from
single drug use to multiple drug use
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Drug Interaction:Planned Synergism I
The planned administration of two or
more drugs to achieve an effect different
than and greater than their independent
effects
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Drug Interaction:Planned Synergism II
The effects produced by combining
psychoactive drug administration with a
non-chemical but rewarding behavior
may also require the re-evaluation of the
drug’s addiction potential
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Drug Substitution Principle
Lack of access to one drug often results
in drug substitution: the replacement of
the preferred drug with a drug whose
effects are similar.
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Drug Prices Principle I
Any significant price reduction of a drug
may increase its potential for misuse by
engaging more vulnerable populations
and by increasing dose per episode of
use and dose per lifetime.
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Drug Withdrawal Principle
Withdrawal symptoms associated with
discontinuation of a particular drug are
often the opposite of the signs exhibited
during the period of intoxication.
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Universality of Drug Effect
Although most drugs of abuse have idiosyncratatic
actions, they also either directly or indirectly produce
their effects through their interaction with a single
brain pathway, the mesolimbic reward system
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Principles Governing the
Person-Drug Relationship: The
Person (Host)
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Species Effect Principle
The effects of psychoactive drugs
differ significantly across species
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Specification Principle
The effect of a psychoactive drug can
not be specified without taking into
account:
Age of onset
Gender
Unique vulnerability
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Intent Principle
One’s motivation for using a drug
shapes and defines the drug experience.
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Developmental Windows of Vulnerability Principle II
Drugs cannot be defined in terms of their
relative safety or abuse potential until
their effects have been tested across the
human life cycle
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Adam’s Rib Principle
All statements regarding drug effects
and drug addiction need to be checked
for gender validity
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Principle of Addition
Personal vulnerability to the powers of
psychoactive drugs increase when the individual
discovers that the drug can add something
(pleasure, energy, confidence, tranquility, people)
to themselves or their life that is missing
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Principle of Subtraction
Personal vulnerability to the powers of
psychoactive drugs increase when the
individual discovers that the drug can
either hide or take away something
(pain, boredom, shyness) that is
undesirable
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Principle of Initiating and Sustaining Factors
The factors that operate to sustain
addiction are often quite different than
the factors that contributed to the
initiation of drug use
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Set Vulnerability
The risk of a particular psychoactive
drug cannot be calculated without
reference to the beliefs, attitudes, and
expectations the user brings to the drug
experience
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Set as a Control Mechanism
The use of a drug within a
culturally-defined and established
ritual is less likely to result in abuse
and dependency, than use outside
such sanctioned rituals
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Principles Governing the
Person-Drug Relationship: The
Environment
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Setting Vulnerability
The risk of a particular psychoactive
drug cannot be calculated without
reference to the physical and social
environment within which the drug is to
be used
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Cultural Response
No culture is neutral about the
psychoactive drugs in its environment.
Cultures generally place psychoactive
drugs in one of four categories
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Cultural Categories
Celebrated
Tolerated
Instrumental
Prohibited
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Cultural Response:Shifts in Categories
The movement of drugs from one
category to another reflect not only
changing knowledge about the drug but
also changing cultural values
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Cultural Vulnerability
Drug-related problems tend to rise within
cultures whose norms are in rapid flux.
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Drugs as Symbols
The culture that surrounds the drug may
be more powerful than the drug itself.
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Dormance, Emergence & Hibernation
A drug can lie dormant within a culture
for generations before it breaks into the
open as a favored intoxicant
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Dormance, Emergence & Hibernation
Once they emerge, drugs may move
through a stage of popularity into a
period of sustained hibernation, only
to re-emerge again as a major drug of
abuse.
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Drugs and War
Wartime conditions can spawn increased
psychoactive drug consumption by
• bringing large numbers of adolescents
and young adults into intimate social
contact.
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Drugs as Weapons
Intoxicants have a long role as weapons
of interpersonal, political and economic
exploitation
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Technology and Drug Use
Technological innovation can spark
changes in patterns of drug use and
force a re-evaluation of the risks
associated with use of a particular drug
or class of drugs
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Addiction as Iatrogenic Illness
Medicine has played a significant role
in the spread of addiction in America.
Nearly every drug of abuse, during its
early introduction, was prescribed--in
some cases indiscriminately--as a
medical remedy.
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Normalization Principle
One of the ways to introduce or expand
drug consumption is to expand the range
of benign places where the drug may be
purchased and sold.
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Image Manipulation
A drug’s value can be enhanced with
different groups by declaring it to be
either a “natural” or “organic” drug with
one group or a “synthetic” or “designer”
drug with another
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Trojan Horse
Drugs purported to cure or treat
addiction often emerge later as drugs of
abuse
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Stages of a Drug Epidemic
Most drug epidemics don’t go away.
They transform themselves into
something else.
Periods of excessive stimulant use are
often followed by periods of excessive
depressant use
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The Red Herring
The use of exotic and illicit drugs that
garner great public attention may mask
fundamental changes that are occurring
in the use of socially approved drugs
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Myths that Kill
Initial reports of drug effects are
notoriously unreliable and often embed
myths within the culture that generate
their own harmful effects
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Backlash Effect
If certain risks of a particular drug as
conveyed by mainstream institutions are
not confirmed by experiences with the
drug, then all risks portrayed for the
substance are discounted
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Popular Image of the Addict
There is often great incongruence
between the popular image of the addict
and the true profile of those who are
addicted
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Popular Image of the Addict
Our views about addiction are influenced
primarily by our view of who's addicted.
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Race, Social Class and Problem Definition
Racism, classism and sexism exert a
powerful influence on the definition
and enforcement of drug control
policy