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CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY
1.1 Problem Background
Lichens is the combination of fungi and algae that is morphologically and
physiology is a unity. In their live, lichens do not need the high live requirements and
hold out toward the lacking of water for a long time. Lichens products more than 500
uniques biochemical compound to adaptate in extrim habitat. Those compounds is used
to control the sun light, Senyawa tersebut berguna untuk mengontrol sinar terik
matahari, drive out, or repellen the herbivores, kill the microba and decrease the
competition with animals, and others.
Inspite of lichens grow well in nature in the unpriofitable condition, the lichens
is very sensitive to the air pollution and quickly loss in the bad air pollution area. A
reason that caused this is occurred that lichens can absorb a fluid and precipitate
minerals from rain water and air and they can not take it outside. Therefore, the
concentration of lethalic compound as SO2 is enter easily.
1.2 Problem Identifications
a. Lichens need the high of live requsite.
b. Lichens hold out toward the lacking of water for a long time.
c. Lichens produce more than 500 biochemical compounds.
d. Lichens can adapt in extrim habitat.
e. Lichens is very sensitive to the air pollution.
f. Lichens can quickly loss in bad air condition.
g. Lichens can absorb and precipitate the minerals from rainwater and air.
h. The lethalic compound as SO2 can enter to the lichens body easily so that
candeadly the body itself.
i. Lichens can not take out the minerals from their own body.
1 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
1.3 Problem Formulation
a. How to know the air pollution effects by observe the lichense colony.
b. How to know the polluted and unpolluted area based on the lichens that are
observed in the several locations of observation.
c. The students do not understand yet about the varieties of lichens species that
can be used to indicate the air pollution.
1.4 Objectives of Observation
a. Students can know the effects of air pollution by observing the lichense colony
and dust particles.
b. Students can know the polluted and unpolluted area by observing the lichens
colony and compute the colony of lichense.
c. Students can know the level of pollution in several areas that are observed by
compute the dust particles.
d. Students can explain why the lichens can be used as bioindicators of air
pollution.
e. Students can understand the lichense specieses in the location of observation.
f. Students can explain why the dust particles can be used as bioindicators of air
pollution
`
1.5 Benefit of Observation
After doing the observation of lichense and dust as bioindicator of air pollution, the
students are expected to:
a. Understanding the varieties of lichens in the location of observation.
b. Understanding how the lichens reaction to respon the condition of their
environment.
c. Understanding where the polluted area and unpolluted area by observe the
lichens in the location object of observation.
d. Understanding the impact of air pollution by observe lichense in the location of
observation.
2 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
CHAPTER II
THEORY
2.1 Lichen Structure
Lichens are not plants. They are "composite
organisms" made up of two, or maybe three, completely
different kinds of organisms. It's as if you combined an animal such as
a dog with a plant such as an oak, maybe with a fungus thrown in as
well, and ended up with something very different from animal, plant
or fungus. Something that was its own thing, with its own identity and
manner of being.
Every lichen species is part fungus. Usually the other species
is a photosynthesizing alga, but sometimes it can be a
photosynthesizing bacterium known as a cyanobacterium.
Sometimes all three kinds of organisms are found in one lichen. The
above drawing gives an idea of what fungal hyphae wrapping around
alga cells might look like at the microscopic level.
In this amazing association the fungus benefits from the algae
because fungi, having no chlorophyll, can't photosynthesize their own
food. A lichen's fungal part is thus "fed" by its photosynthesizing algal
part. The alga and/or cyanobacterium benefit from the association
because the fungus is better able to find, soak up, and retain water
and nutrients than they. Also, the fungus provides the resulting lichen
shape, and the reproductive structures. This kind of relationship
between two or more organisms, where all organisms benefit, is
known as mutualism. The main body of a lichen is called a thallus.
At the left you see the British Soldier
Lichen, Cladonia cristatella. It's only about ¼-inch high (6
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mm). In this common lichen the red spore-producing reproductive
structures are clearly visible. The lichen's name,Cladonia cristatella, is
actually the name of the fungus. The alga species in the lichen is
known as Trebouxia erici. However, it's customary to name a lichen
after its fungal part, so the whole lichen is known asCladonia
cristatella. British Soldiers are usually found on decaying wood, soil,
mossy logs, tree bases, and stumps. They help break down old wood
and put nutrients back into the soil where they can be used by plants.
Lichens also take nitrogen from the air and put it into the soil so
plants can use it.
The main structure on lichen is the body, called the thallus.
Lichens are put into four groups according to the shape of the thallus.
Foliose
lichensflat, leaf-like structure
Fruticose
lichensbushy structure
Squamulose
lichens
tiny, scale-like
squamules
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Crustose
lichens
flat crust on or below
rocks or under the bark
of a tree
2.2 Lichen Ecology
Ecologically, lichens are important because they often occupy
niches that, at least sometime during the season, are so dry, or hot, or
sterile, that nothing else will grow there. For example, often the only
plant growing on a bare rock will be a crustose lichen.
That crustose lichen will be patiently collecting around and beneath itself tiny
amounts of moisture, and mineral and organic fragments. When freezing temperatures
come, the lichen's collected water will expand as it forms ice and maybe this expanding
action will pry off a few more mineral particles from the rock below the lichen, thus
making more soil. The water itself is a bit acidic, plus humic acids from the organic
matter collected by the lichen will also be acidic, so these acids will likewise eat away
at the stone.
Over a period of perhaps many years, even centuries, the lichen gathers an
extremely thin and fragile hint of a soil around it. As the lichen grows the soil-
producing processes speeds up and takes place over an ever-larger area.. Eventually
other more complex plants, perhaps a foliose or fruticose lichen, or mosses or ferns, or
even some form of flowering plant, may take root in the modest soil and replace the
crustose lichen.
Thus crustose lichens on bare rock often begin a succession of communities, as
described on one of our ecology pages. And when your heel dislodges a patch of lichen
from a rock, you may be undoing the patient work of centuries...
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Certain lichens live on leaves, sometimes as parasites. These special leaf-living
lichens are known as foliicolous lichens (not foliose). You might enjoy downloading a
free, well-illustrated field guide to foliicolous lichens, in PDF format, presented by the
Field Museum of Chicago.
2.3 Lichen Reproduction
Lichens reproduce in two main ways:
The fungus part produces reproductive structures that further produce spores. If
a spore lands and germinates, and the resulting hypha finds the right species of
alga in the neighborhood, the hypha will grow through the algal cells and a new
lichen will start developing.
By asexual (vegetative) techniques. One asexual strategy is that of
fragmentation, which simply involves a piece of a lichen breaking off and this
fragment then grows into a new lichen. Lichens also produce on their surfaces
microscopic, dust-like particles composed of one or several algal cells closely
enveloped by fungus hyphae. These are known assoredia. Each soredium can
produce a new plant. Lichen fragments and soredia can be transported great
distances by wind and water.
2.4 Lichen Symbiosis
The dual nature of lichen organisms was first proposed in 1869 by the Swiss
botanist Simon Schwendener. Soon afterwards an imaginative Scottish priest described
the dual relationship as ‘the unnatural union between a captive algal damsel and a
tyrant fungal master’! This remark had a great effect on the Scottish psyche that has
lasted to this day. See Scottish Lichenology.
Lichens are the result of a physiological relationship between a fungus and a
photosynthesising partner termed the photobiont. The photobiont is either green algae
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or bacteria that use blue-green pigment to photosynthesise; such bacteria are called
cyanobacteria.
The photobiont supplies food in the form of carbohydrate to the fungal partner;
the fungal or mycobiont partner provides a home and some nutrients for the photobiont.
Working together they take on the form and functionality of lichen. In the case of the
photobiont being a green algae, when both are separated and grown separately, they
form an amorphous mass unlike the original lichen form. This enforces the idea that the
partnership is one of equality and not, as some writers have suggested, that the algae is
prisoner to the fungus.
An interesting element of the symbiotic relationship is that in each lichen
species the mycobiont is different, whereas the photobiont is one of a few algae or
cyanobacteria. Because of the individuality of each fungus to a lichen, the naming of
lichens is derived from the fungus. Most of the fungal partners come from the Class
Ascomycetes. The photobiont is frequently one of the following:
Green algae: Trebouxia, Myrmecia, Stichococcus, Heterococcus and Trentepohlia.
Cyanobacteria: Stigonema, Chroococcus, Nostoc, Gloeocapsa and Scytonema.
2.5 Lichen As Bioindicator
Lichens are widely used as environmental indicators or bio-
indicators. If air is very badly polluted with sulphur dioxide there may
be no lichens present, just green algae may be found. If the air is
clean, shrubby, hairy and leafy lichens become abundant. A few
lichen species can tolerate quite high levels of pollution and are
commonly found on pavements, walls and tree bark in urban areas.
The most sensitive lichens are shrubby and leafy while the most
tolerant lichens are all crusty in appearance. Since industrialisation
many of the shrubby and leafy lichens such as Ramalina,
Usnea and Lobaria species have very limited ranges, often being
7 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
confined to the parts of Britain with the purest air such as northern
and western Scotland and Devon and Cornwall.
Lichens traditionally have the name of indicating that the
environment is clean. This is a simplistic view however. Some lichens
will only survive in a clean environment, while others flourish with
certain pollutants.
For example, some species of the genus Xanthoria establish and
grow abundantly in nitrogen rich areas, such as near farms or
chemical factories, while species of the genus Usnea are sensitive to
the amount of sulphur in the air and will only grow in areas where the
air sulphur content is low.
Lichens, unlike most living organisms, are unable to ‘refuse’ entry
to many chemicals into their bodies. This means that chemicals can
freely invade them and interfere with their metabolic processes, often
killing the lichen, but sometimes increasing their growth rate. Also,
lichens are unable to excrete or secrete these chemicals and so they
accumulate within the thallus. The lichen is therefore an excellent
bioaccumulator. Lichenologists can monitor pollution levels in a
habitat by looking at the species present and analysing specific
species to see which toxins have accumulated.
An important study into the effect of air pollution on lichens was
carried out by Hawksworth and Rose (1970) and Gilbert (1970). These
lichenologists divided lichen sensitivity to air borne sulphur dioxide
into 10 zones. This 10 zone system is still in use today, although it
has been modified and developed since its creation.
Ten Point Hawksworth-Rose Sulphur Dioxide Pollution Scale. one
for acid bark and one for eutrophic bark. Highest levels of pollution
are indicated by 0 and lowest levels by 10. With reference only to the
acid bark scale the following species are good indicators.
2.6 Some Pofile of Lichens
8 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
2.6.1 Lepraria incana
Ach.(as morphospecies)
Thallus a diffuse, thin, powdery crust, lacking a
medulla or any marginal differentiation into lobes, pale
grey to distinctly blue-grey, apothecia unknown. In
shaded places on acid rocks, walls and tree-trunks,
widespread and evidently common, but part of a
complex of species that require thin-layer chromatography for certain
identification. (Photograph shown here is named on morphological grounds.)
2.6.2 Ochrolceria tartarea
Thallus crustose, coarsely warted, cream, pale grey or
tinged with buff, soredia absent; apothecia usually
abundant, with thick, notched, flexuous margins and
pale pink- to yellow-brown disks. Can be very similar
to O. androgyna, with which it grows, but lacks
soredia; it differs from variants of O. parella with non-pruinose disks in being
more coarsely granular, and can be confirmed by its thallus context testing red
with sodium hypochlorite. Mainly in upland areas and in the north and west, on
base-poor rocks and nutrient-poor tree bark.
2.6.3 Candelariella vitellina
Thallus of dispersed to densely aggregated, minute, ±
flat, yellow to yellow-orange granules, non-reactive
with KOH; apothecia bright yellow, asci with 12-32
ascospores. Widespread and very common on rocks
and walls. States with a dispersed thallus are liable to
be confused with C. aurella, but the latter has 8-spored asci. Species of
theCaloplaca citrina group may also look similar but react purple with potassium
hydroxide (KOH).
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2.6.4 Cladonia sp
Podetia tall, erect, very variable in shape, usually with
one or more erect branches, often forming irregular,
perforate cups that continue to proliferate from the
margins, patchily corticate and densely covered with
small, incised, peeling squamules, soredia absent,
basal squamules much incised and fan-like, often in dense clumps; apothecia
small, brown, in clusters on tips of short branches. Widespread and locally
common in woodland, in heathland and on moorland, on rotting wood, on
degraded peat and on boulders.
The usual variant, var. squamosa, fluoresces white under UV light and is
negative to usual chemical tests. Var. subsquamosa (Nyl. ex Leight.) Vain. is a
probably minor chemical variant, K+ yellow-orange, PD+ orange, and UV
negative, said to be possibly more robust, also widespread.
2.6.5 Caloplaca ferruginea
Thallus greenish- or greyish-yellow to yellow, or
infrequently tinged orange, placodioid with marginal
lobes usually long and finger-like, pruinose, inner parts
of thallus surface becoming covered by dense, globose or
flattened-globose isidia; apothecia rare. Generally on
nutrient-enriched coastal rocks, often below below sea-bird colonies, in the north and
west. Potentially can be confused with C. decipiens, which can occur on coastal
rocks, but which is brighter orange and has globose soredia developing from soralia
initially on the lobule margins, whereas C. verruculifera has globose isidia
developing directly from the thallus surface.
2.6.6 Usnea sp
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Fruticose, much branched, prostrate or pendulous, often
detached and draped over branches, continuing to grow,
grey-green, not blackened at the base, branches smooth to
minutely nodulose or sparsely spinulose, main branches
becoming articulated into inflated, sausage-like sections.
Formerly widespread in southern and western Britain but highly pollution sensitive
and now rare except in the extreme south-west, on branches in tree canopies ond on
hedges, sometimes terrestrial.
2.6.7 Graphis scripta
A thin, smooth, pale crust with prominent, long, very
narrow, curved, often forked apothecia (lirellae), with a
grey hymenium and raised, black, unfurrowed margins;
spores colourless, with transverse septa only. Widespread
and often common on smooth bark. Generally the
commonest of a group of very similar species, including species
of Graphina and Phaeographis (pages pending), that require microscopic
examination for certain identification.
2.6.8 Usnea dasypoga
Fruticose, tufted, much branched, variable, grey- to blueish-
green, paler in well-lit situations, not blackened at the base,
branches generally constricted or annulate at their junctions,
finer branches sorediate and isidiate, small lateral branches
rather rigid and curved, claw-like. Western and southern
Britain, locally common, on trees and rocks.
2.6.9 Pertusaria corallina
Thallus whitish grey to grey, surface usually covered by
abundant, cylindrical to coralloid isidia, but these can
become eroded (weathering, being sat on) to reveal the
cracked-areolate thallus beneath; apothecia rare. Common
11 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
in the north and west on exposed, base-poor boulders.
2.6.10 Addition
12 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
2.6.11 Common Lichen Air Pollution Indicators
a. Lichens Of Polluted Areas :
Buellia punctata
Cladonia coniocraea
Cladonia macilenta
Desmococcus viridis (algae)
Diploicia canescens
Lecanora conizaeoides
Lecanora dispersa
Lecanora expallens
Lepraria incana
Xantoria parietina
13 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
b. Lichens of Moderate Pollution :
Evernia prunastri
Foraminella ambigua
Hypogymnia physodes
Lecanora chlarotera
Lecidella elaeochroma
Parmelia glabratula
Parmelia saxatilis
Parmelia sulcata
Physcia adscendens
Physcia tenella
Plastismatia glauca
Ramalina farinacea
c. Lichens of Slight Pollution :
Anaptychia ciliaris
Bryoria fuscescens
Graphis elegans
Graphis scripta
Opegrapha varia
Parmelia acetabulum
Parmelia caperata
Phaeophyscia orbicularis
Physcia aipolia
Physconia distorta
Physconia enteroxantha
Pseudevernia furfuracea
d. Lichens of Clean Air
Degelia plumbea
Lobaria pulmonaria
Lobaria scrobiculata
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Pannaria rubiginosa
Permelia perlata
Ramalina calicaris
Ramalina fastigiata
Ramalina fraxinea
Teloschistes flavicans
Usnea articulata
Usnea florida
Usnea rubicunda
Usnea subfloridana
CHAPTER III
OBSERVATION METHOD
3.1 Location and Time of Observation
a. Location
1. Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk.
2. The main street throughout the Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk until the Tahura.
3. Tahura (Taman Hutan Raya)
b. Time
Day, date : Saturday, May, 5th , 2012
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Time : 10.00 – end
3.2 Preparation of Observation
a. Preparing the rules and meters to measure the bounded area of tree and measure
the diameter of the tree.
b. Preparing the camera to take the picture of lichenes that observe.
c. Preparing the stationary such as written board, pen, pencil and notebook to write
the number of lichenes colony on the tree according to the area bounded.
3.3 Prosedure of Observation
1. Preparing the tools and materials.
2. Visiting the roads that passed by public transport as: bus, spot or pedicab,
private transportation, etc. In this chance, we visit several locations: Simpang
Si Debuk-Debuk, main street throughout Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk until
Tahura, and the last is Tahura.
3. Looking for trees (not lump or bushes) then measure the height of the tree
about 1 m from the under of tree.
4. Measure 10 cm up and down from the first measure.
5. Measure the diameter of the tree as sample.
6. Computing the total of Lichens colony (big or small colony).
7. Taking a photo of this observation (lichens and group photos).
8. Making the data of observation result in the form of table.
3.4 Data Analysis Method
a. Present data in tabular form that is filled with observations obtained during the
data acquisition research.
b. Describes the contents of the table to explain the observations with the
datacontained in the observation table.
c. Discussion and discuss the results of research conducted
16 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
CHAPTER IV
EXPERIMENT RESULT AND EXPLANATION
4.1 Table of Observation Result
No Street Name
(Location)
Lichense Name Amount of
Lichense
Colony
Diameter of
Tree Stem
Percentage of
Lichense
Density
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1. Simpang si
debuk-debuk
Tree 1Pertusaria corallina
Tree 2Parmelia sulcata Tree31.Pertusaria corallina2. Xanthoria eleganseTotal of Lichense
35
13
241539
7 cm
9 cm
6.4 cm6.4 cm6.4 cm
500%
144%
218%236%609%
2. Jln. Raya si
debuk–debuk
until Tahura
Tree 1Parmelia sulcata
Tree 2Parmelia sulcata
21
27
24 cm
21 cm
87.5%
129%
3. Taman Hutan
Raya
( TAHURA)
Tree 11. Parmelia sulcata2.Usnea Dasypoga3. Xanthoria eleganse4. Pertusaria corallinaTotal of lichense
Tree 21. Parmelia sulcata2. Pertusaria corallina3. Usnea DasypogaTotal of lichense
Tree 31. Parmelia sulcata
2. Pertusaria corallina 3. Xanthoria eleganseTotal of lichense
32403522129
8451265
2
3220 54
69 cm69 cm69 cm69 cm69 cm
35 cm35 cm35 cm35 cm
41 cm
41 cm41 cm41 cm
46%58%50%32%
187%
23%129%34%
186%
48%
78%49%
132%
4.2 Explanation and Discussion
From the table of observation result above, we can see there
are some types of lichense speciesthat found on the observation
location.Lichense species that found there are:
1. Parmelia sulcata
18 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
2. Usnea Dasypoga
3. Xanthoria eleganse
4. Pertusaria corallina
All of these lichense species live on the different trees and have
different amount in difeerent trees. Then based on the percentage on
the table above, lichense density have the value above 80%. It shows
that the air in the observation location doesnot occure serious air
pollution there. Or in the other words, the air there is health enough
and unpolluted.
We use lichense as air pollution bioindicator here because
lichense has ability to response the environment changing surround
its habitat. If on the stone or on the trees find much of lichense
colony, the condition of that area can be said has contaminate by a
little air pollution. Vice versa, if the trees or stone planted by a little
lichense colony, it can be said that area had be contamined by much
of air pollution.
Generally, we also found bryophyte, weeds, surrond the area of
tree that observed. It shows thatthe soil there is very fertil and the air
is damp.
To find the amount of lichense densityon a tree can be used the
formula below:
Lichense density = Amount of lichense colony
Diameter of tree stem x 100%
For the explanation below, it will show the amount of lichense
density percentage on every tree in the observation location:
a. Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk
Tree 1
Pertusaria corallina
Lichens density =
357
x100 %=500 %
Tree 2
Parmelia sulcata
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Lichens density =
139
x100 %=144 %
Tree3
1. Pertusaria corallina
2. Xanthoria eleganse
Lichens density =
396 .4
x 100%=609%
b. Jln. Raya si debuk–debuk until Tahura
Tree 1
Parmelia sulcata
Lichens density =
2124
x 100 %=87 . 5 %
Tree 2
Parmelia sulcata
Lichens density =
2721
x 100 %=129 %
c. Taman Hutan Raya ( TAHURA)
Tree 1
1. Parmelia sulcata
2. Usnea Dasypoga
3. Xanthoria eleganse
4. Pertusaria corallina
Lichens density =
12969
x100 %=187 %
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Based on data that be gotten, can be said that the air on the three places as areas
of research are well and are not tainted because the number of density lichens at trees in
the areas have a value of approximately 80%. Therefore, the O2 levels in all three study
sites, namely Simpang Si Debuk-Debuk, TAHURA and Jln. Raya si debuk–debuk until
Tahura are very much and the air is clean to breathe.
4.3 Picture of Experiment Result
4.3.1 Simpang si Debuk-Debuk
Unknown Tree
Pertusaria corallina
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Tree 2
1. Parmelia sulcata
2. Pertusaria corallina
3. Usnea Dasypoga
Lichens density =
6535
x100 %=186 %
Tree 3
1. Parmelia sulcata
2. Pertusaria corallina
3. Xanthoria eleganse
Lichens density =
5441
x 100 %=132 %
Bryophyta
Unknown Tree
Parmelia sulcata
Weeds
Bryophyta
Citrus sinensis
Xanthoria elegans
Pertusaria corallina
4.3.2 Jln. Raya si Debuk-Debuk
Casuarina sp.
Bryophyta
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Pertusaria corallina
Casuarina sp.
Pertusaria corallina
Bryophyta
4.3.3 Taman Hutan Raya (TAHURA)
Altingla excelsa noronha
Bryophyta
Parmelia sulcata
Usnea comosa
Pertusaria corallina
Xanthoria elegans
Altingla excelsa noronha
Parmelia sulcata
Pertusaria corallina
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Bryophyta
Usnea comosa
Altingla excelsa noronha
Bryophyta
8 Xanthoria elegans
Parmelia sulcata
Pertusaria
corallina
4.4 Lichens and Air Pollution
From the observation that we did, we found the lichens cover
the stem of tree which pecentage more than 80%. It shows that the
nature there still fresh and unpolluted (relevant with the theory in
chapter II). Because of this reason, we can conclude that lichens can
be used as bioindicator.
“For example, some species of the genus Xanthoria establish
and grow abundantly in nitrogen rich areas, such as near farms or
chemical factories, while species of the genus Usnea are sensitive to
the amount of sulphur in the air and will only grow in areas where the
air sulphur content is low” (Theory). We found Xanthoria elegans and
24 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
Usnea comosa. It shows that our observation location are rich of
nitrogen and content just low of sulphur.
4.5 Economical Benefits of Lichens
4.5.1 Lichens as Medicine
Many lichens have been used medicinally across the world. A lichen's
usefulness as medicine probably usually comes from the lichen
secondary compounds that are abundant in most lichen thalli. Different
lichens produce a wide variety of these compounds, most of which are
unique to lichens. The exact use of these lichen compounds is still being
debated, but some lichen compounds can act as antibiotics, fungicides,
and herbivore deterrents. This undoubtedly gives the lichen some
protection, and probably endows the lichen with some medicinal
characters as well.
Sharnoff (1997) estimates that 50% of all lichen species have antibiotic
properties. The scientific search for antibiotics in lichens started in 1944
when Burkholder found that extracts from 27 out of the 42 different
species of lichen that he tested inhibited the growth of certain
bacteria. Lichen compounds have been found to act as anti-tumor agents
(Kupchan and Kopperman 1975; Takai et al 1979), antibiotics
(Burkholder 1944; Vartia 1973), and anti-inflammatories (Handa et al.
1992; Skidmore and Whitehouse 1965).
Research to develop pharmaceuticals from lichens continues, especially
in Japan (Sharnoff 1997). There is currently work being done to
genetically engineer lichens so that lichen products could easily be
produced in the lab (Miao et al. 2001). Patent Number 6132984 (issued
on October 17th, 2000 to J. E. Davies, B. Walters, and G. Saxena from
TerraGen Discovery Inc.) is for a method for inhibiting eukaryotic
protein kinase activity (and thus the sporulation of Streptomyces) with
vulpinic acid or usnic acid (two lichen compounds).
25 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
Some of the most widely studied lichen compounds are usnic acid,
vulpinic acid, atranorin, and protolichesterinic acid. Usnic acid is found
in large quantities in Usnea spp., as well as in several other lichen
genera. It is a fairly wide spectrum antibiotic and is the most active
antibiotic to be characterized from lichens (Abo-Khatwa et al. 1996;
Shibamoto and Wei 1984; Rowe et al. 1991; Dobrescu et al.
1993). Usnic acid and diffractaic acid (a derivative of usnic acid) have
both been demonstrated to be analgesic when tested on mice (Okuyama
et al. 1995). And a mixture of usnic acid and isolichenin has been
demonstrated to have moderate activity against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich
tumor cells (Periera et al. 1994).
There is some research to indicate that protolicheresterinic acid may be
valuable in the treatment of ulcers and cancers, and in AIDS
prevention. It has been documented that protolicheresterinic acid has in
vitro activity against Helicobacter pylori (Ingolfsdottir et al. 1997) and
DNA polymerase activity of human immunodeficiency virus-1 reverse
transcriptase (Pengsuparp et al. 1995). Protolicheresterinic acid was also
found to be antiproliferative and cytotoxic to T-47D and ZR-75-1 cell
lines cultured from breast carcinomas, and to K-562 from erythro-
leukemia (Ogmundsdottir et al. 1998). Protolichesterinic acid may
perform these functions by inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase, and this would
also contribute to protolichesterinic acid's reported anti-inflammatory
actions (Ogmundsdottir et al., 1998).
Vulpinic acid also has some mild antibiotic properties, but it is not as
strong of an antibiotic as usnic acid. It is, however, a significant
herbivore deterrent and has been found to be toxic to animals in large
doses (Lawrey 1986). Atranorin has been found to be much less
biologically active than the above mentioned compounds (Lawrey 1986),
but it is still a bit of a herbivore deterrent (Abo-Khatwa et al. 1996).
Another property of lichens that had them being used for medicines is
their cool little shapes. According to the 'Doctrine of Signatures' of the
15th century Europe a plant could be used to treat whatever ailment it
26 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
most looked like. This use was mostly obsolete be 1800 (Llano 1944b),
but some of these uses have persisted. Some lichens commonly used
according to the Doctrine of Signatures include species
of Cladonia, Evernia, Lobaria, Parmelia, Peltigera, Pertusaria, Physcia,
Roccella, Usnea, and Xanthoria.
The importance of this use is evident when one looks at the origin of the
word 'lichen'. 'Lichen' comes from the Greek word 'Leprous' and refers
to the use of some lichens for treating cutaneous diseases due to their
peeling-skin appearance (Llano 1944b).
4.5.2 Lichens as Food
Dr. Hansteen, who was the chief lecturer in the Agricultural School at
Aas, Norway in 1911, prophesized that lichen was to become the great
popular food of the masses, because of its cheapness and nutritive
properties (Swartz 1911). This didn't happen, but lichens have
frequently been used as food by people. They have often been used as
famine food, but there are also many peoples who have used lichens for
food on a more regular basis. Lichens are sometimes even been used as
a delicacy (like Umbilicaria esculenta in Japan) or a dessert
(like Cetraria islandica in Scandinavia).
There are two problems that people have generally encountered when
eating lichens. The first problem is the secondary lichen compound
often found in lichens. Most lichens contain a variety of secondary
compounds. These compounds are generally unique to lichens and
because of this are referred to as 'lichen compounds'. Lichen compounds
are usually acids and thus have an acrid flavor. Only two lichen
compounds have been found to be poisonous, vulpinic acid and pinastric
acid, and these compounds would have to be ingested in significant
amounts to be fatal for humans. But many other lichen compounds are
herbivore deterrents, and can be very bad tasting, a digestive irritant, and
27 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
would could probably even be toxic if eaten in large quantities for
extended periods of time.
The second problem with eating lichens is that the complex
carbohydrates in lichens are not easily broken down in the human
digestive tract. Lichens contain a variety of polysaccharides. They
usually contain lichenin (soluble in hot water) and/or isolichenin
(soluble in cold water, turns iodine purple), and can often also contain
other lichen polysaccharides such as evernin and usnin (Swartz
1911). Lichens can also often contain small quantities of
polysaccharides often found in other plants, such as cellulose and inulin
(Perez-Llano 1944). Lichen carbohydrates were fairly well studied over
a century ago, after Külz suggested in 1874 that they could be eaten as
substitute carbohydrates by diabetics (Swartz 1911). They did not
discover a cure for diabetes, but they did discover that these lichen
polysaccharides were not digestible by humans, dogs, or rabbits (Swartz,
1911). However, if lichenin and isolichenin are hydrolyzed, they yield
glucose and other readily digestible simple sugars.
People have traditionally used various preparation methods to make
lichens edible by removing the lichen secondary compounds and
hydrolyzing the lichen polysaccharides. The most frequently used
preparation technique is boiling or steaming. This has been used by
groups of people from North America, Europe, and India. Boiling would
help to hydrolyze the lichen polysaccharides into digestible forms. It
would also help to remove many lichen compounds. It is often recorded
that people would boil the lichen and discard the water, which indicates
that the boiling water was being used to remove the lichen compounds.
The lichen was also often soaked or rinsed with water. This could have
removed some lichen compounds as well, but they are generally not very
soluble in pure water. Both the Iroquois and northern Europeans are
recorded to have soaked the lichens in ash water. Wood ash is alkaline,
and so it would have been a lot more effective in removing the acidic
28 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
lichen compounds. Alkali could also help to hydrolyze lichen
polysaccharides.
The addition of dilute acid, or acidic things like onion, is common when
cooking lichen. Acids could possible have helped to hydrolyze lichen
polysaccharides, or they might make some lichen compounds more water
soluble.
The value of lichens as a food stuff is probably usually just as a source of
carbohydrates. The nutrient composition of lichens varies widely
between different species of lichens but they are generally high in
carbohydrates and low in most other nutrients.
Lichens may also provide some other nutrients. Lal and Ranganatha
Rao (1956) found calcium and iron levels to higher in lichens than
cereals and more comparable to green leafy materials. The calcium to
phosphorus ratio they found was from 2 to 14, showed that lichens could
serve as a good source of calcium. Peltigera canina has been found to
be relatively high in protein and essential amino acids. Various studies
have shown lichens to contain some vitamins, but results have not been
consistent.
The various findings have not been consistent. This variation probably
partly arises from variation in nutrient composition between and within
species. Some of the variation is also likely experimental error as some
of the studies are quite old.
Lichens can also accumulate toxins from their environment. Cetraria
islandica and Cladina spp. have been found to contain particularly high
levels of lead, cadmium, and mercury. Parmelia saxatilis and Xanthoria
parietina have been found to absorb enough beryllium from their
environment to harmful to animals (Perez-Llano 1944). In some
areas Parmelia molliusculacan contain toxic levels of selenium salt
(Perez-Llano 1944). And the natural radionuclides Po-210 and Pb-210
both accumulate in lichens, as well as Cs-137 and Sr-90 from nuclear test
explosions (Airaksinen et al. 1986).
29 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
4.5.3 Lichens as Dyes
Lichens are frequently used as dyes. The lichen dye can be extracted by
boiling the lichen in water or by fermenting the lichen in
ammonia. Traditionally urine was often used as an ammonia source, and
the lichen would be fermented for at least 2 to 3 weeks. There is no
record of the ammonia fermentation method being used in North
America. It seems to be restricted to Europe. This is an incomplete
list. For more complete information on the subject, refer to Brough
(1984, 1988), Casselman (1999), and Kok (1966).
CHAPTER V
CLOSING
5.1 Conclution
1. Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution and quickly disappeared in the areas
that have levels of air pollution levels are heavy. This proves that lichens can be
used as a bioindicator air pollution in a particular area as a measure of the level
of air pollution with a natural and simple way, namely through the presence or
absence of lichens
2. All species of lichens, that lives in the different trees, has a number of lichens
too. Then, based on the percentage that have been searched, density in the area
has a dominant total above 80%. It is proved, that the air in the area as a
research site did not have enough air pollution that worrying. That said, the air
in the area quite well and are not tainted because the number of density of
lichens at the trees in the area has much less value above 80%.
3. We found Xanthoria elegan in observation location. So it shows
that this area is rich of nitrogen.
30 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
4. We found Usnea comosa in observation result.. It shows that
our observation location have low content of sulphur.
5. From our observation, we can conclude that lichens can be used as
bioindicator. Beside that, it also can be used for the other purposes. Such as
medicine, food and dyes.
5.2 Suggestion
There are some suggestions that we asked after doing research about lichens ,those
are:
a. Doing counseling - Educate the public about the importance of keeping nature
and do not ruin it, especially lichens
b. Local governments should make funding for the researchers to can make local
community be maximally in using the lichens
c. Protect the environment to keep them clean of pollution so can ensure the life
of lichen survive.
d. Protect the continuity of lichense so that our grandchildren will be able to know
what the lichen vegetation.
e. Lichen serves as bioindicator pollution in a particular area, should really be
used as a measuring of the level pollution .
f. Lichen can be used to fulfill of human needs such as pharmaceuticals, flavor and
aroma enhancer, can be made litmus paper, and so forth, for it must be
preserved.
g. The content contained in plants should be more examined and researched so
that the content in plants can be used as raw materials that more useful.
h. Lichens can be exported to overseas if the benefits contained in be well known
and used well . so of course add to state revenues and local revenues.
31 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
REFERENCES
Brodo, Irwan M. 2001. Lichens of North America. London: Yale University Press.
Hale, Mason E. 1988. Lichens of California. London: University of California Press.
Nash, Thomas H. 1996. Lichens Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://www.backyardnature.net/lichens.htm
http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/archive/jdeacon/microbes/lichen.htm
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/fungi/lichens.htm
http://www.lichens.ie/lichens-as-biomonitors/
http://web.uvic.ca/~stucraw/part1.html
32 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
AUTOBIOGRAPHY
1. Dewi Bakara
33 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
Dewi as her nickname. Was born in Sidikalang, January 5 th
1993. She comes from SMA N 1 Sidikalang. Now she gets her
education on Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class with
4113111018 as her identity number there.
2. Mahendra Galang
Known as Galang. Was born in Sidoarjo, May 6th 1993. Has
him senior high school at SMA N 1 Panai Hulu. Now she gets
her education on Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class
with 4113312009 as him identity number there.
3. Rizky Nurul Hafni
Famous as Aci. Was born in Medan, on February, 9th 1992. She
is from MAN 2 Model Medan. Now she gets her education on
Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class with 4113111066
as her identity number there.
4. Tika Mindari
Tika Mindari, was born in Sidamanik, October 17th 1993.
She comes from MAN Pematangsiantar. Now she gets her
education on Bilingual Mathematics Education 2011 class with
4113111076 as her identity number there.
5. Widi Aulia Widakdo
34 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION
Everyday call as Widi, was born in Medan, November 10th
2011. Before has collage, she goes to school at SMA N 1
Batam. Now she gets her education on Bilingual Mathematics
Education 2011 class with 4113111076 as her identity number
there.
35 | OBSERVATION OF LICHENS AS BIOINDICATOR OF AIR POLLUTION