COP1000 2
Overview
• Guidelines• Modules & Functions• Cohesion & Coupling• Local & Global Variables• Parameters• Variable Names & Data Dictionaries• Three Logic Structures
McManus
COP1000 3
Guidelines on Program Structure
• Use Modules– Each part should have a particular
function• Use the three logic structures
– Sequential, Decision & Iteration• Don’t reinvent the wheel
– Avoid rewriting identical processes• Use techniques to improve
readabilityMcManus
COP1000 5
Cohesion & Coupling
• Each module should– Be functionally independent– Perform one problem-related task
• Calculating IRS Withholding is one problem-related task, but may have multiple operations within the module
– When connected, use the smallest interface possible.
McManus
COP1000 6
Cohesion
• The degree of interaction within a module.– Each module should perform one
functionally-related task…not necessarily one assignment statement.
– Concentration is on what goes on within the module.
McManus
Term was coined by Larry Constantine in mid-1960’s
COP1000 7
Scale of Cohesion
• Stevens, Myers, Constantine, and Yourdon developed the Scale of Cohesion as a measure of the “black boxiness” of a module, and as a result, the maintainability of a module.
McManus
Type Measure Black BoxFunctional Best Black BoxInformational ** BestSequential CommunicationalProcedural Gray BoxTemporalLogicalCoincidental Worst Transparent
or White Box**Originally not part of Scale
COP1000 8
Coupling
• The degree of interaction between two modules.– Interaction is the
interface, or lack thereof, between two modules.• The interface is the
parameter list. – Create it, use it, lose it
McManus
Best (Lowest Interaction)
Worst (Highest Interaction)
Normal Data Stamp Control
Common
Content
COP1000 9
Effects?
• Which pieces affect Cohesion and which affect Coupling?
McManus
Private Sub Minimum(min As Long, y As Long, z As Long)
If y < min Then
min = y
End If
If z < min Then
min = z
End If
lblSmallest.Caption = "Smallest value is " & min
End Sub
What does this code do?
COP1000 10
What is the code doing?
• What are the parameters? Variables?
McManus
Private Sub Minimum(Scully As Long, Mulder As Long)
Dim Temp As Long
If Scully < Mulder Then
Temp = Scully
Scully = Mulder
Mulder = Temp
End If
End Sub
Global &Parameters
Local Variable
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Each Goal
• Cohesion’s Goal– To create a procedure that performs one
functionally-related task. • Coupling’s Goal
– To protect global data and local data from being used within a procedure without declaring it on the procedure’s header• Create as close to where you’re going to use
it as possible, use it, then lose it as soon as possibleMcManus
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Goal of Cohesion & Coupling?
• High Cohesion – Functional or Information
• Low Coupling– Data, Stamp, Control
McManus
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Modules
• “A module is a lexically contiguous sequence of program statements, bounded by boundary elements, having an aggregate identifier.” Yourdon & Constantine (1979)– A part of a larger system– Written and tested separately– Combined with other modules to form a
complete system– Used in top-down programming– Procedures & Functions
McManus
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Procedures
• A smaller part of the main program.• 2 Advantages
1. Eliminates the need to program the same thing more than once.
2. Larger programs are easier to read when broken into procedures (and functions).
McManus
COP1000 16
Functions
• Functions– A subprogram that acts like a
mathematical function: • Given a particular set of argument values,
the function returns a unique result.• Big Difference Between Procedures &
Functions:– Use Return values that are associated with the
name of the function
McManus
COP1000 17
Function Examples
• PascalFUNCTION doublenum(b : Integer) : Integer; BEGIN doublenum := 2 * b END;
• Visual BasicPrivate Function Doublenum(b As Integer) As Integer Doublenum = 2 * bEnd Function
• C++Int doublenum ( int b){ return 2 * b;}
McManus
All three do the same thing,
just with different syntax
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What Do They Have In Common?
• Each module – is an entity by itself– has a single purpose– should be easily read, modified and
maintained– Length is governed by function and
number of instructions contained within– Controls the order of processing
McManus
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Types of Modules/Procedures
• Control – Demonstrates
overall flow of data• Initialization &
Wrap-Up– Processes
instructions to be performed once (either at beginning or at the end of the program)
– Used typically in batch processing
• Process Data– Calculation– Print– Read and Validation
• Event– Used in OO and
some event driven programming languages
– More about these later
McManus
COP1000 21
Control Modules
• Most often called “Main”• All other modules, procedures and
functions are subordinate to the control module
Sub MainCall ProcedureA(X, Y)Call ProcedureB(A, B)
End Main
McManus
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Init Module
• Used in some languages to initialize variables or processes– Examples
• Opening files• Initializing variables• Printing report headings
Procedure BeginDim X, Y, Z As IntegersOpen Payroll file
End Procedure ‘BeginMcManus
Does this violate
Cohesion or
Coupling?
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Process Data Modules
• Calculation– Performs
• Arithmetic operations
• Accumulations• Sorting or Searching
Private Sub Double (X, Y)Dim Temp as IntegerTemp = X * YPrint Temp
End Sub
Read and Data Validation◦ Reads and validates
input data Usually separate
modules
McManus
Private Sub Verify(X)If X < 0 Or X > 10 Then
lblMessage.Text = “Data Error”End If
End Sub
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Wrap Up Module
• Used to close out processes– Examples
• Closing files• Printing reports• Returning updated data to database
Procedure LastProcedureClose Employee fileClose Payroll file
End Procedure ‘LastProcedure
McManus
Does this violate
Cohesion or
Coupling?
COP1000 26
Scope
• The area of a program where an identifier (variable) is visible
• When an identifier has multiple declarations in different modules, the most local declaration is used each time that identifier is referenced. (overloading)
• Global or “non-local” variables subject to side effects.
McManus
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Side Effects
• Caused when the value of a global variable is changed within a procedure or function– Any effect of one module on another module
that is not a part of the explicitly defined interface between them
• Also caused when a variable name is used in globally and locally (causes overloading)
• A nasty effect that should be avoided!
McManus
COP1000 28
Global Scope
• Declared within the main program• Can be referenced anywhere in the
program– Is visible and accessible everywhere
McManus
X, Y, Z
A
CB
X, Y & Z are Global to modules
A, B & C
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Local Scope
• Declared within a module– Has no effect outside the procedure or
function in which it is declared• Can be referenced only within a
procedure or a function
McManus
X, Y, Z
A m
C pB n
Within A, Variable m is defined, but can also see X, Y, & Z
Within B, Variable n is defined , but can also see X, Y, & Z
Within C, Variable p is defined , but can also see X, Y, & Z
COP1000 30
Global or Local?
Private Sub Minimum(Scully As Long, Mulder As Long)
Dim Temp As Long
If Scully < Mulder Then
Temp = Scully
Scully = Mulder
Mulder = Temp
End If
End Sub
McManus
Scully & Mulder are what type
of variables?
What type of variable is Temp?
COP1000 31
Another Example
McManus
Scope of X, Y, Z, Procedure1
Scope of M, N, Me, X, You
program ShowScope; var X, Y, Z : Real; procedure Procedure1 (var M, N, Me : Real);
var X, You : Real; begin {Procedure1} ....... end; {Procedure 1}
begin {ShowScope} Procedure1(X, Y, Z)end. {ShowScope}
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Parameters
• Are the variables that are passed into and out of modules
• Use global parameters – (to the procedure or function)
• Pass values through the use of variables
• Actual and Formal parameters• Call-by-reference & Call-by-value
McManus
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Parameter Communication
• A measure of the quantity of data passing through a module’s interface.
• Is also a measure of the module’s coupling.
• The goal is to strive for a minimal amount of information being passed.
McManus
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How Parameters are Used
• Input Parameter – Information passed into a procedure, but not
returned or passed out of the procedure.• Output Parameter
– Information returned to the calling program from a procedure.
• Input/Output Parameter – Information passed into a procedure, perhaps
modified, and a new value returned.
McManus
Programmers now determine how their parameters are used.
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Parameters
• Provide the communication links between the main program and its modules.
• Make procedures and functions more versatile.– Different data can be manipulated each time
the module is called.• Come in two types:
– Actual– Formal
McManus
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Actual Parameters
– Are substituted for the formal parameter at the time the procedure is called.• Parameters used in the call statement
– Statements that transfer control to a procedure.• Data types must be assignment compatible
with its corresponding formal parameter– If they don’t, your program will blow up!
• Can be a variable, constant or an expression• Can be call-by-value or call-by-reference
McManus
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Formal Parameters
– Is a list of “place marker” names used in the procedure’s declaration.
– Parameters declared in the procedure header
– Can include the data type of the valued parameters.
– Must be a variable– Can be call-by-value or call-by-reference
McManus
COP1000 39
Parameter Correspondence Rules
• Determined by position in respective parameter lists
• Lists must be the same size, although the names may differ
• Data Types of corresponding actual and formal parameters must be identical
McManus
COP1000 40
Data Areas After a Call
McManus
8.0
10.0
8.0
10.0
? ?
Formal Parameters
Local Variables
Sum Average
Num1
Num2
Actual Parameters Var1
Var2
Main program data area Procedure data area
COP1000 41
Valued & Variable Parameters
• By Reference (Call-by-Reference)– Passing a variable to a procedure is called
passing an argument by reference, because a variable can be modified by a procedure and returned to the calling module.
– You can use it AND you CAN change it!• By Value (Call-by-Value)
– Passing a literal value (such as a string in quotation marks) to a procedure is called passing an argument by value, because a value cannot be modified by a procedure.
– You can use it BUT you CAN’T change it!
McManus
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Call-by-Reference
• The default for parameter passing• Gives access to the contents of the
storage area where values are stored• Giving the called procedure the
ability to directly access the caller’s data
• Allowing changes in the data
McManus
COP1000 43
Call-by-Value
• Protects the data being passed• Accomplished by creating a copy of
the value– without affecting the original value of
the variable• Thus…
– Called procedure is unable to change the values stored in the variable’s storage area
• Helps avoid Side Effects!McManus
COP1000 44
Parameter Relationships
Call Statements
Actual Parameters• Valued• Variable
McManus
Procedure Header Parameters
Formal ParametersValuedVariable
Parameter Interface using Global Variables
COP1000 46
Variable Names-Reminder
• Use mnemonic terms– Use a variable name that relates the name of
the variable to its usage• Contributes to self-documenting code
– Which reduces the amount of commenting required
– Z = X * Y What is it doing (besides multiplication?)
– SalesTax = SalesTaxRate * Cost (this you know)
• Examples– SalesTax, SalesRate, Sales_Rate, PayRate,
Temp
McManus
COP1000 47
The Data Dictionary
• Defines all of the variables used within a program
• Lists:– Item Name– Variable Names – Domain (range of possible values)– Data type– Location defined & accessed– Test Data (or error checking)
McManus
Required!
COP1000 48
DD Example
Item Name
(required)
Variable Name
(required)
Data Type
(required)
Modules Domain(Range)(required)
Scope
Hours worked
Hours Numeric-real
GetHoursCalcGrossPay 0 <= n <=168
GlobalGlobal
Gross Pay
GrossPay Numeric-real
CalcGrossPayCalcDeductionsCalcNetPayPrintPayChecks
0 <= n <=1 million
GlobalGlobalGlobalGlobal
Net Pay NetPay Numeric-real
CalcNetPayPrintPayChecks 0 <= n <=1 million
LocalGlobal
McManus
COP1000 49
The Three Logic Structures
• Sequential– One statement follows another
• Selection (Decision)– Allows choices based on the data– IfThenElse, Nested If’s, Case, Switch
• Iteration (Looping or Repetition)– Allows statements to be repeated a specified
number of times– While, Do, For, Do Until, Repeat
McManus