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Plants Use Photosynthesis as a Source of Carbohydrates
Green plants and algae have
chlorophyll, a multiringed
compound that contains
magnesium.
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Animals Consume Carbohydrates as a Source of Energy
Carbohydrates, such as the
starch found in this baked
potato, are the main energy
source for most humans
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The formationof four sp3 hybrid orbitals by
combination of an atomic s
orbital with three atomicp
orbitals. Each sp3 hybrid orbital
has two lobes, one of which is
larger than the other. The fourlarge lobes are oriented toward
the corners of a tetrahedron at
angles of 109.5.
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The formation
of sp2 hybrid orbitals by combination
of one s orbital and two
p orbitals. The three hybrids lie
in a plane at angles of 120 to
one another. One unhybridized
p orbital remains, oriented at a
90 angle to the plane of the sp2
orbitals.
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The combinationof one s and onep orbital
gives two sp hybrid orbitals
oriented 180 apart. Two unhybridized
p orbitals remain and
are oriented at 90 angles to the
sp hybrids.
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The s orbital adds to one lobe of
thep orbital and subtracts from the
other lobe of thep orbital.
An s orbital and threep orbitals
hybridize to form four sp3 orbitals.
An sp3 orbital is more
stable than ap orbital, but not asstable as an s orbital.
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(a) The four sp3 orbitals
are
directed toward the
corners of atetrahedron, causing each
bond
angle to be 109.5.
(b) An orbital picture of
methane,
showing the overlap ofeach sp3
orbital of carbon with the s
orbital of a hydrogen. (For
clarity,
the smaller lobes of the
sp3
orbitals are not shown.)
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An hybridized sp2 carbon. The threedegenerate sp2 orbitals lie in a
plane. The unhybridizedp orbital is
perpendicular to the plane. (The
smaller lobes of the sp2 orbitals are
not shown.)
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An sp hybridized carbon. The two
sp orbitals are oriented 180 away
from each other, perpendicular tothe two unhybridizedp orbitals.
(The smaller lobes of the sp orbitals
are not shown.)
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Tetracycline is called a broad-spectrum
antibiotic because it is active against a
wide variety
of bacteria. How many asymmetric carbons
does tetracycline have?
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Coffee, for example, is a familiar source of caffeine. Tea contains both caffeine and
theobromine.
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For a nasty taste, we should mention bittering agents, put into dangerous
household substances like toilet cleaner to stop children eating them by accident.
Notice that this complex organic compound is actually a saltit has positively
charged nitrogen and negatively charged oxygen atoms and this makes it
soluble in water.
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A typical perfume will contain 510%
fragrances in an ethanol/water (about
90:10) mixture.
Chemists produce synthetic flavourings such as smoky bacon and even
chocolate. Meaty flavours come from simple heterocycles such as alkyl
pyrazines (present in coffee as well as roast meat) and furonol, originally found in
pineapples. Compounds such as corylone and maltol give caramel and meaty
flavours. Mixtures of these and other synthetic compounds can be tuned to tastelike many roasted foods from fresh bread to coffee and barbecued meat.
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Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin, Nuprin): an anti-inflammatory agent