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Intro to Social Science & Intro to Social Science & History of Media EffectsHistory of Media Effects
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What is Social Science What is Social Science Research?Research?Research = An attempt to
discover somethingSocial Science = An examination
of how people interact with objects in their environment ◦Testing theory
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Basic methodology
Hypothesis
eExperiment
Conclusion
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AristotleAristotle 384 BCE – 322 BCE384 BCE – 322 BCE
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Giovanni BenedettiGiovanni Benedetti
Performed the ball drop experiment
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Ways of KnowingWays of KnowingWe “know” lots of things. How do we
know:
◦It’s hot outside◦Veggies are good for you◦Opposites attract◦Smoking causes cancer
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Everyday Ways of Everyday Ways of KnowingKnowingTenacity/Tradition
◦It’s always been true You eat Turkey on Thanksgiving
◦Tied to prior held beliefs◦Beliefs are hard to change◦What if knowledge has changed but
beliefs haven’t? The Earth is 6000 years old Humans can’t affect the climate
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Everyday Ways of Everyday Ways of KnowingKnowingAuthority
◦Someone (who should know) says so Doctor diagnosis Mommy says so
◦What if that person is wrong?◦Again, hard to change and may not consider new information
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Everyday Ways of Everyday Ways of KnowingKnowingIntuition or Logic
◦Truth is self-evident Common sense
◦What if two individuals’ common sense tell them different things? Politics Religion
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Problems with “Everyday” Problems with “Everyday” WaysWaysFilters how we process info
◦False premise; Illogical reasoning◦Selective observation; expectations
Everyday ways of knowing can even lead to conflicting ideas about “truth”◦Absence makes the heart grow fonder
◦Out of sight, out of mind
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Scientific MethodScientific MethodThe 4th “way of knowing”Requires systematic analysisAlways open to new information
◦Nothing is ever “proven” with scienceTests questions of fact, not questions
of value◦How do customers react to this
advertisement?◦Is it ethical to try to get people to
buy things?
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Differences between hard and social sciences
Hard sciences deal with the inanimate or nonhumans, like elements and forces and animals
Social science deals with people
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MethodologiesObservation
◦Reduce variables as much as possible
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MethodologiesSurveys
◦Administer questionnaires to research subjects
◦Be careful with wording the questions
◦Be careful of question order
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SurveysSurveys◦Be careful with wording the
questions◦Be careful of question order
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MethodologiesFocus groups
◦Small panel of people who discuss what the researcher interested in
◦Problems with maintaining focus◦Danger of one person dominating
discussion
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MethodologiesContent analysis
◦Counting things to get statistics◦Sample size must be large enough◦Time consuming◦Must specifically define what you’re
looking for
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What are Media Effects?What are Media Effects?Media effects approach
◦focus on audiences (vs. media system) Try to reduce variables
◦specification of influence (vs. uses)◦attribution of influence to media
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Types of Outcomes in Effects Types of Outcomes in Effects Research Research BehavioralBehavioral – Buying a product – Buying a product AttitudinalAttitudinal – creating a favorable – creating a favorable
attitude towards a political candidate attitude towards a political candidate (affect)(affect)
CognitiveCognitive – Candidate XX is stupid – Candidate XX is stupid (belief) (belief)
PhysiologicalPhysiological – jumping from a scene – jumping from a scene in a scary moviein a scary movie
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Effects can be complicated: Effects Effects can be complicated: Effects of Violent TV on Males and of Violent TV on Males and Females’ AggressionFemales’ Aggression
0
0.5
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1.5
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males
females
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Eras of Media Effects IEras of Media Effects IMagic bullet / uniform effects
◦Also know as Direct Effects◦Pre-1945◦Focus on war propaganda
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Eras of Media Effects IIEras of Media Effects IILimited (or Indirect) effects
◦Late 1940s to early 1970s research showed little impact of media on attitudes and behaviors Two-Step Flow: media --> opinion leader
--> publicl. Study)
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Two-Step FlowTwo-Step FlowSome argued this was still an
example of strong media effects
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Eras of Media Effects IIIEras of Media Effects IIIPowerful effects in limited areas
◦Early 1970s to present◦Move to focus on cognitions and
perceptions◦Focus becomes not if there are
media effects, but when they are most likely to occur Conditional effects