Download - Intro chapter 10 part2a
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Chapter 10
Molecular Biology of the GenePart 2
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Now that we understand (hopefully) how the DNA replicates, we can finally begin to
discuss how the genes work.We already know that the gene controls
the making of a protein. This process is called protein synthesis.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Before discussing the process itself, it is important to understand that the genes are
in the nucleus and the protein building apparatus (ribosomes) are in the
cytoplasm.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
DNA cannot leave the nucleus. It is too large a molecule to pass through the pores
in the nuclear membrane.Getting the information from the gene to
the ribosome is done by a “middleman.” This is RNA.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
There are 3 types of RNA. Each has a specific role in the process of protein
construction.The 3 types are:
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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Molecular GeneticsProtein SynthesisRibosomal RNA (rRNA)
Ribosomal RNA combines with protein to form the ribosomes.
Each ribosome is composed of 2 subunits.These subunits fit together like two beans
face to face, so there is a little opening between them.
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Ribosome with tRNA and mRNA and the growing polypeptide.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Ribosomal RNAThere are 2 active sites (transfer RNA
binding sites) on the ribosome that allow the amino acids to line up and attach to each
other.These 2 sites are called the A site (where the
amino acid comes in) and the P site (where the amino acid is added to the polypeptide
chain).Ribosomal RNA is the factory or the assembly line for manufacturing protein.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Transfer RNA (tRNA)Transfer RNA is a highly motile form of RNA. It moves throughout the cytoplasm picking up amino acids and taking them to
the ribosome.tRNA is the truck that carries the raw
materials (amino acids) to the factory.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Transfer RNA (tRNA)tRNA has an unusual shape.
It is somewhat similar in shape to an upside down 3 leaf clover, although it is
twisted around itself making it hard to see this clover shape.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Transfer RNA (tRNA)There are two sites of importance in the tRNA.
At the top of the molecule is a site where the amino acid attaches. Each tRNA can carry
only a single specific amino acid. There are 22 different amino acids and more than 60 different
tRNAs, so there is some overlap.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Transfer RNA (tRNA)At the bottom of the molecule are 3 nitrogen bases
called the anticodon. These 3 bases have 2 jobs. 1. They determine which specific amino acid can
be carried by that tRNA. 2. They line up with the mRNA codons (3
complementary bases on the mRNA) so the amino acid is brought to the right place in the protein.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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Molecular GeneticsProtein SynthesisMessenger RNA (mRNA)
Messenger RNA carries the genetic information to the ribosome. It is the blueprint for the process of
building the protein.mRNA is a simple straight chain of nucleotides.
It is composed of a cap, exons, introns and a tail.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein SynthesisMessenger RNA (mRNA)
Not all of the mRNA is needed to code for the protein.
The cap allows the mRNA to feed into the ribosome.
Introns are extraneous bits of material that must be edited out before the mRNA can be used.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein SynthesisMessenger RNA (mRNA)
The tail stabilizes the mRNA as the last bits of it feed into the ribosome so it doesn’t fall out too
soon.The exons carry the code that is needed to make
the protein. There are parts of the exons that are unused. These parts just add to the cap and tail.
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Molecular Genetics
cap intron exon 2 intron exon3 intron exon4 tailexon1
This represents a newly made mRNA molecule. It has not yet been edited.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein SynthesisMessenger RNA (mRNA)
The nucleotides in the body or the translational portion of the mRNA are functionally (not
structurally) divided into groups of 3.These groups are called codons.
Each codon calls for a specific amino acid at a specific spot in the amino acid chain.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
So, now we have all the players for the process of protein synthesis.
rRNA is the factory, with all the enzymes and binding sites needed for protein assembly.
tRNA is the truck, carrying the amino acids to the docking sites in the factory.
mRNA is the blueprint, telling the tRNAs which amino acid to bring in at each point.
Lets begin the process.
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Molecular GeneticsProtein Synthesis
There are 2 parts to protein synthesis.1. transcription = the building of the
mRNA2. translation = the building of the amino
acid chain (polypeptide or protein).
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Molecular GeneticsPart 1: Transcription
Transcription is similar to DNA replication. There are a few differences:
A) Only a small part of the DNA opens (not all).B) Only one strand (the template or 35 strand) of
the open portion of DNA is copied.
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Molecular GeneticsTranscription
C) RNA polymerase and RNA nucleotides are used rather than DNA polymerase and DNA
nucleotides.(RNA nucleotides have a different sugar (ribose) than DNA nucleotides and RNA does not use the base, thymine…but
uses uracil instead).
D) Once the mRNA is made, it leaves the DNA and the DNA closes back up.
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Molecular GeneticsTranscription
The processRNA polymerase attaches to the DNA molecule triggering the DNA to open at a specific site where
the gene of interest is located.
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RNA polymerase
Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
A
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
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Molecular GeneticsTranscription
Once the DNA has opened, RNA nucleotides begin to line up with their complementary bases on the
Template strand of the DNA. Remember, RNA has uracil instead of thymine.
When joining DNA nucleotides to RNA nucleotides the following bases make complementary pairs.
DNA to RNAAdenine – Uracil
Thymine – AdenineCytosine – GuanineGuanine – Cytosine
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
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Molecular GeneticsTranscription
The polymerase runs down the template strand, connecting the sugar-phosphate backbone of the
newly forming messenger RNA strand.
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
G
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
A
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
C
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
C
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CA
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
C
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
CG
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
CGA
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
CGA
C
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Molecular GeneticsTranscription
Once the messenger RNA is completed, the polymerase leaves the DNA.
The newly formed mRNA leaves the DNAThe DNA simply closes back up as it was before.
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
CGA
C
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
CGA
C
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
T
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
U
G
A
C
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
CGA
C
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Transcription
AG
T C
G C
AA
C T
GA
TG
C T
A T
G C C
A C
TC
AG
GC
TT
GA
CT
AC
GA
TA
CGG
TG
GC
A U
AG
CA U
CAG U
CGA
C
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Molecular GeneticsTranscription
Before the new mRNA leaves the nucleus, it has to be edited, removing the introns and rejoining the exons so that the mRNA leaves the nucleus as a
“mature” mRNA molecule.
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Molecular Genetics
cap intron exon 2 intron exon3 intron exon4 tailexon1
A mature mRNA molecule ready to leave the nucleus and move to the ribosome to produce protein.
Newly made “immature” mRNA
Editing involves cutting out and discarding introns, then rejoining the exons.
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Molecular GeneticsPart 2:Translation
Before we can understand the process of translation, we need a better understanding of the
codons on the mRNA.Each codon is composed of three bases and
codes for a single, specific amino acid.Because the codons are lined up in an exact order,
they call for the amino acids to be lined up in an exact order as well.
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Molecular GeneticsTranslation
The next slide is a codon chart which tells us what amino acid each codon codes for.
If we know the sequence of bases on the template DNA strand, we can determine the complementary
sequence of bases on the mRNA codons.If we know the codon sequence, we can determine
the amino acid sequence for the protein.
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Cod
on T
rans
latio
n C
hart
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Molecular GeneticsTranslation
As you look at the chart, along the left side are letters that represent the 1st base of the codon.
Across the top are additional letters that represent the 2nd base of the codon.
Down the right hand side of the chart are the letters that represent the 3rd base of each codon.
So, if you have the codon CGA, find C on the left, then U on top and then A on the right. Where these three
letters come together, you will find the amino acid that is called for by this codon.
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Cod
on T
rans
latio
n C
hart
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Molecular GeneticsTranslation
There are 4 special codons.AUG is the start codon.
AUG calls for the amino acid, methionine, but the first AUG on the mRNA is also the start codon. It tells the ribosome
when to start reading the mRNA and bringing in amino acids.
There are also 3 stop codons: UAA, UAG and UGA.Stop codons do not code for any amino acid. They tell the
ribosome to stop adding amino acids…the chain is complete.
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Molecular GeneticsTranslationThe process
The mature mRNA leaves the nucleus and moves to the ribosomes. The cap threads into the ribosome and
mRNA passes through until a codon bearing the 3 bases AUG enters the A site.
AUG is the start codon. It triggers the ribosome to start building the protein.
AUG also codes for the amino acid, Methionine.Methionine is always the first amino acid in any protein
or polypeptide.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
The mRNA moves to the ribosome. It threads its way along, codon by codon…
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
until the A site lines up with the first AUG on the mRNA.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
With the first AUG codon at the A site, a tRNA comes into the ribosome with the anticodon that complements
the codon (in this case, UAC). The tRNA carries the first amino acid, Methionine and the process of translation
begins.
UAC
met
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
Once the tRNA has hooked onto the codon, the mRNA shifts so that the codon with the tRNA moves to the P
site.
UAC
met
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
A new tRNA will now move to the codon at site A. In this example, its anticodon will have to be AAA and it will
carry the amino acid, phenylalanine.
UAC
met
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
Now the amino acids are in close proximity and an enzyme in the ribosome links the two amino acids
together.
UAC
met
AAA
phe
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
The tRNA at site P releases its hold on both its amino acid and the codon and leaves the ribosome.
UAC
met
AAA
phe
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
Again the mRNA shifts on the ribosome and a new tRNA will come into site A.
UAC
met
AAA
phe
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
The amino acids at site P will attach to the new amino acid at site A and the tRNA at site P will detach and
leave the ribosome.
met
AAA
phe
GCG
arg
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
The mRNA shifts again and another tRNA comes to the ribosome.
met
AAA
phe
GCG
arg
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe
GUG
arg
ACC
trp
The amino acids at site P will attach to the new amino acid at site A and the tRNA at site P will detach and
leave the ribosome.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe
GUG
arg
ACC
trp
The mRNA shifts again and another tRNA comes to the ribosome.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe arg
ACC
trp
UUG
asn
The amino acids at site P will attach to the new amino acid at site A and the tRNA at site P will detach and leave the ribosome.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
The mRNA shifts again and another tRNA comes to the ribosome.
met phe arg
ACC
trp
UUG
asn
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe arg trp
UUG
asn
The amino acids at site P will attach to the new amino acid at site A and the tRNA at site P will detach and
leave the ribosome.
GUC
gln
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe arg trp
UUG
asn
The mRNA shifts again and another tRNA comes to the ribosome.
GUC
gln
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe arg trp asn
GUC
gln
AUG
tyr
The amino acids at site P will attach to the new amino acid at site A and the tRNA at site P will detach and
leave the ribosome.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe arg trp asn
GUC
gln
AUG
tyr
The mRNA shifts again.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe arg trp asn gln
AUG
tyr
We have now reached a STOP codon. It codes for no amino acid, so there is no amino acid for the chain to attach to. Thus, when the tRNA at P is released, the
polypeptide is also released.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
AUG
met phe arg trp asn gln tyr
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
met phe arg trp asn gln tyr
The mRNA will finish its journey through the ribosome and may then be used again to make another copy or it
may be broken down by the cell.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
metphe
argtrp
asngln
tyr
The mRNA will finish its journey through the ribosome and may then be used again to make another copy or it
may be broken down by the cell.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
phearg
trpasn
glntyr
The mRNA will finish its journey through the ribosome and may then be used again to make another copy or it may be broken down by the cell.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
argtrp
asngln
tyr
The mRNA will finish its journey through the ribosome and may then be used again to make another copy or it
may be broken down by the cell.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA P A
asngln
tyr
The mRNA will finish its journey through the ribosome and may then be used again to make another copy or it
may be broken down by the cell.
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Translation
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA
The mRNA will finish its journey through the ribosome and may then be used again to make another copy or it
may be broken down by the cell.
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Complementary Base Pairing
Given the DNA template strand, you can determine the complementary strand, the mRNA, the anticodons on the tRNA and with a chart, the amino acid sequence.
Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Complementary DNA strand
ACT CCG ATG TTT CGC TGG AAC CAG TAC TAG CCA TAC AAA
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Complementary Base Pairing
Given the DNA template strand, you can determine the complementary strand….
Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Complementary DNA strand
ACT TGGCCG ATG TTT CGC AAC TACCAG TAC TAG CCA AAA
DNA to DNAADENINE - THYMINETHYMINE - ADENINEGUANINE - CYTOSINECYTOSINE - GUANINE
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Complementary Base Pairing
Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Complementary DNA strand
ACT CCG ATG TTT CGC TGG AAC CAG TAC TAG CCA TAC AAA
the mRNA codons…
ACU UGGCCG AUG UUU CGC AAC UACCAG UAC UAG CCA AAAmRNA
DNA to RNAADENINE - URACIL
THYMINE - ADENINEGUANINE - CYTOSINECYTOSINE - GUANINE
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Complementary Base Pairing
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA
Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Complementary DNA strand
ACT CCG ATG TTT CGC TGG AAC CAG TAC TAG CCA TAC AAA
UAC GCG ACC UUG GUC AUGAAA
The tRNA anticodons…RNA to RNA
ADENINE - URACILURACIL - ADENINE
GUANINE - CYTOSINECYTOSINE - GUANINE
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Complementary Base Pairing
ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA
Template DNA strand TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Complementary DNA strand
ACT CCG ATG TTT CGC TGG AAC CAG TAC TAG CCA TAC AAA
met phe arg trp asn tyrgln
UAC GCG ACC UUG GUC AUGAAA
and, with the codon chart, the amino acid sequence.
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MutationsWhen discussing Chromosomes and
Genetics, we have mentioned mutations that can occur on our DNA.
We will now look at how these mutations work.
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Mutations1. Point Mutations
A point mutation alters a single nucleotide on the DNA molecule. There are 2 basic types of point
mutations:a) substitution mutationsb) frame shift mutations
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Mutations1. Point Mutationsa) substitution mutations
In a substitution mutation, one nitrogen base in the original DNA sequence is
replaced with a different nitrogen base.There are 3 possible consequences of
this substitution.
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Mutations1. Point Mutations
a) substitution mutations(i) A silent mutation occurs if the base change does not
cause a change in the amino acid at that point in the protein. (This occurs most often when the 3rd base of a
codon is altered).(ii) A missense mutation occurs if the base change causes
a single amino acid to change in the polypeptide sequence. (This can occur with a change in the 1st, 2nd and
sometimes the 3rd base of the codon).(iii) A nonsense mutation occurs if the substitution causes
the codon to change to a stop codon which causes the polypeptide or protein to cut off before it is complete.
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ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAU CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA
Mutated Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTA GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
met phe arg trp asn tyrgln
Point mutations1.Substitution
a. silentOriginal Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Mutated mRNA
met phe arg trp asn tyrgln
Original A.A. sequence
Mutated A.A. sequence
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ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAA CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA
Mutated Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTT GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
met phe arg trp asn tyrgln
Point mutations1.Substitution
b. missenseOriginal Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Mutated mRNA
met phe arg trp lys tyrgln
Original A.A. sequence
Mutated A.A. sequence
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ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UAG AAG CAG UAC UAG CCA UAC AAA
Mutated Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ATC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
met phe arg trp asn tyrgln
Point mutations1.Substitution
c. nonsenseOriginal Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Mutated mRNA
met phe arg
Original A.A. sequence
Mutated A.A. sequencestop
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Mutations1. Point Mutationsb) Frameshift mutations
If a single base is deleted or added to the DNA nucleotide sequence, it changes the mRNA codons in such a way that all
of the codons beyond that point are altered. This can have serious
consequences on the functionality of the resulting protein.
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ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC UCA GUA CUA GCC AUA CAA A
Mutated Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG AGT CAT GAT CGG TAT GTT T
met phe arg trp asn tyrgln
Point mutations2. Frame shift
a. additionOriginal Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Mutated mRNA
met phe arg trp asn glyser
Original A.A. sequence
leu ala ile gln
Mutated A.A. sequence
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ACU CCG AUG UUU CGC UGG AAC A GU ACU AGC CAU ACA AA
Mutated Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG TC A TGA TCG GTA TGT TT
met phe arg trp asn tyrgln
Point mutations2. Frame shift
b. deletionOriginal Template DNA strand
TGA GGC TAC AAA GCG ACC TTG GTC ATG ATC GGT ATG TTT
Mutated mRNA
met phe arg trp asn thrser
Original A.A. sequence
ser his thr
Mutated A.A. sequence