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Interaction between rock deformation and fluid flowMichael Manga, University of California, Berkeley
2002 M7.8 Denali earthquake, 3100 km away
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ask any questions at anytime
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Some observations
•Water levels correlated with Earth tides•Water levels go up and down as a freight trains pass • Subsidence of the land after fluid extraction (oil, gas, water)•Water levels rise near a pumping well (Noordergum effect)• Filling reservoirs (e.g., Lake Mead 1935) triggers 100s of earthquakes
List based on Wang (2000)
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Lai et al., Tectonophysics (2015)
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Some observations
•Water levels correlated with Earth tides•Water levels go up and down as a freight trains pass • Subsidence of the land after fluid extraction (oil, gas, water)•Water levels rise near a pumping well (Noordergum effect)• Filling reservoirs (e.g., Lake Mead 1935) triggers 100s of earthquakes
List based on Wang (2000)
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Domenico and Schwartz (1998)
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Some observations
•Water levels correlated with Earth tides•Water levels go up and down as a freight trains pass • Subsidence of the land after fluid extraction (oil, gas, water)•Water levels rise near a pumping well (Noordergum effect)• Filling reservoirs (e.g., Lake Mead 1935) triggers 100s of earthquakes
List based on Wang (2000)
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Shirzaei et al., Science (2016)
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Some observations
•Water levels correlated with Earth tides•Water levels go up and down as a freight trains pass • Subsidence of the land after fluid extraction (oil, gas, water)•Water levels rise near a pumping well (Noordergum effect)• Filling reservoirs (e.g., Lake Mead 1935) triggers 100s of earthquakes
List based on Wang (2000)
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Hoover Dam
Adapted from Carder, 1970
Reservoir-induced seismicity - surface loading
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Internal loading
from Hsieh and Bredehoeft (1981)
Rocky Mountain Arsenal, CO
waste fluid injected
seismicity
well
plume
fluid injection
• waste fluid disposal• carbon sequestration• geothermal energy
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• How are deformation and fluid pressure coupled?
• How to couple deformation and fluid flow?
•What can we do with this understanding?
Notes available (too many equations)
Excellent book with historical perspective: Wang (2000) Theory of linear poroelasticity, Princeton University Press.
Two basic phenomena
Solid-to-fluid coupling: stress produces change in fluid pressure
Fluid-to-solid coupling: change in fluid pressure changes volume of solids
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1. Biot (1941)Constitutive relations for isotropic stress
Saturated and isothermal rockStress and pore pressure an independent variables and we would like to know strain and changes in fluid content f, the volume of fluid transported in or out of storage (fluid mass/unit volume divided by fluid density)
If stress is isotropic
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then
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1. Biot (1941)Constitutive relations for isotropic stress
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Biot (1941) argued why
compressibility
1/R specific storage coefficient at constant stress1/H poroelastic expansion coefficient
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1. Biot (1941)Related poroelastic constants
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Change is pressure/change in stress as constant fluid mass
Skempton’s coefficient
Biot-Willis coefficient
Change is fluid content/strain at constant pressure
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Storage properties (change in fluid content with changes in pressure) depend on conditions
1. Biot (1941)Related poroelastic constants
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1. Biot (1941)Other forms of constitutive laws
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Rearrange
Strain has two parts: first is elastic for undrained conditions, second is from fluid transfer
thus
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1. Biot (1941)
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Using wells as strain meters
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1. Biot (1941)Concept of effective stress
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Some observations
•Water levels correlated with Earth tides•Water levels go up and down as a freight trains pass • Subsidence of the land after fluid extraction (oil, gas, water)•Water levels rise near a pumping well (Noordergum effect)• Filling reservoirs (e.g., Lake Mead 1935) triggers 100s of earthquakes
List based on Wang (2000)
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1 2 3
3 causes for failure
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Hubbert and Rubey (1959)“Role of fluid pressure in mechanics of overthrust faulting. I. Mechanics of fluid-filled porous solids and its application to overthrust faulting”, GSA Bull., vol. 70, 115-166.
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Internal loading
from Hsieh and Bredehoeft (1981)
Rocky Mountain Arsenal, CO
waste fluid injected
seismicity
well
plume
fluid injection
• waste fluid disposal• carbon sequestration• geothermal energy
Langenbruch and Zoback, Science Advances (2016)
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Shirzaei et al., Science (2016)
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Candela et al., Science (2018)
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2. Constitutive relations for anisotropic stress
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In standard index notation
equivalently
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3. Poroelastic constants
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Very many because there are many possible constraints on the REV
3.1 Compressibility
unjacketed
drained
It is possible (see notes) to write all these in terms of
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3. Poroelastic constants
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3.2 Storage capacity
Undrained specific storage
Constrained specific storage
Uniaxial specific storage
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3. Poroelastic constants
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3.4 Coefficients of undrained pore pressure buildup
If no horizontal strains, define loading efficiency as
Tidal efficiency is the change in water level near the ocean
Barometric efficient is response to atmospheric pressure, which loads both the surface and the water in the well
Measurements of T.E. and B.E. can be used to determine S and fDeformation-fluid flow interactions: Manga
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Furbish, WRR (1991)
Barometric efficiency B.E.=0.73Incompressible fluid and solid B=1Infinitely compressible fluid B=0
atmospheric pressure
water level
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4. Governing equations for fluid flow
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Conservation of mass
Combine with Darcy’s law
. . . And then use all the various and appropriate previous expression to relate f to stress, strain and p
Uniaxial strain and constant vertical stress
This is the “standard” groundwater flow equation in hydrogeologyDeformation-fluid flow interactions: Manga
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In general, flow creates strain
Changes in mean stress looks like a source of fluid
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5. Permeability changes?Approach: use response to solid Earth tides
Model of a well-aquifer system (Hsieh et al., 1987)
hf : ‘pressure head’ in the aquifer away from the well
s: ‘drawdown’ near the well
Assume constant vertical stress, only vertical strain
Horizontal flow, homogeneous, isotropic aquifer
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Hydraulic head variations assumed to be periodic
With water level response
Groundwater flow equation
with boundary conditions
Since equation is linear and forcing is harmonic
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Solution
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With amplitude ratio and phase
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Hsieh et al., JGR (1987)
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Hsieh et al., JGR (1987)
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Equivalent problem for vertical flow to a free surface (distance ẟ)
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Roeloffs, PAGEOPH (1996)
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Doan and Brodsky “Tidal analysis of water level in continental boreholes, A tutorial (2006)42Deformation-fluid flow interactions: Manga
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Doan and Brodsky “Tidal analysis of water level in continental boreholes, A tutorial (2006)43Deformation-fluid flow interactions: Manga
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Looking for tectonic and earthquake signals
• Need to correct for atmospheric pressure changes• Account for tides
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Raw data
corrected for tides and barometric pressure
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Roeloffs, PAGEOPH (1996)
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Coseismic changes of phase shift of the water level in response to the M2 tide in two wells in southern California (Elkhoury et al. Nature 2006).
Vertical dashed lines show the time of occurrences of earthquakes.
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Elkhoury et al., Nature (2006)
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Elkhoury et al., Nature (2006)
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• How are deformation and fluid pressure coupled?Through mechanical properties and changes in pore pressure• How to couple deformation and fluid flow?Couple Darcy’s law and elastic deformation of a porous materialsBoundary conditions on REV matter.•What can we do with this understanding? Determine rock (e.g., porosity, compressibility) and transport properties (e.g., permeability)
Two basic phenomenaSolid-to-fluid coupling: stress produces change in fluid pressureFluid-to-solid coupling: change in fluid pressure changes volume of solids
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