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The Indian Roads Congress
E-mail: [email protected]/[email protected]
Founded : December 1934
IRC Website: www.irc.org.inJamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,
New Delhi - 110 011
Tel : Secretary General: +91 (11) 2338 6486
Sectt. : (11) 2338 5395, 2338 7140, 2338 4543, 2338 6274
Fax : +91 (11) 2338 1649
Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram
New Delhi - 110 022
Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303
Sectt. : (11) 2618 5273, 2617 1548, 2671 6778,
2618 5315, 2618 5319, Fax : +91 (11) 2618 3669
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility
and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the
papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
VOLUME 41 NUMBER 8 AUGUST 2013
CONTENTS ISSN 0376-7256
INDIAN HIGHWAYSA REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT
Page
2-3 From the Editor’s Desk
4 Advertisement Tariff
5 CSIR-CRRI Training Programmes for the Year 2013-14
6 Engineering Challenges on Controlling Road Accident (Case Study)
Nandanandan Das
14 Damaging Effects of Super Single Tyres : An International Experience
Abhishek Mittal and Sunil Bose
26 Laboratory Performance Evaluation of A Ready-To-Use Patch Mix
Abhishek Mittal, P.K. Jain and Amit Kumar 35 Improvement in Properties of Subgrade Soil by Using Pond Ash and Chemical Additive
B.M. Pati l and K.A. Patil
42 Effect of Purity of Lime on Strength and Durability of Soil-Lime Mixes
Uma Arun, V.K. Kanaujia, Alok Ranjan, R.K. Swami and Sudhir Mathur
50 Good Environmental Management Practices : Case Study & Review of Tree Transplantation for Highways Project in India
Arijit Choudhury, Raj Kumar Sing and V.K. Ganju
62 Errata to IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'
70 Obituary
71-72 Circular Issued by MORT&H
73 Tender Notice of PWD B&R Gurgaon Circle
74 Tender Notice of NH Circle Kanpur
75 Tender Notice of NH Tirunelveli
76 Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow
77 Tender Notice of NH Circle Bareilly
78 Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow
79 Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow
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2 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
Dear Readers,
In the budget for the current year provides for creation for regulator for the road infrastructure
sector. This is a much needed requirement to accelerate further the developmental efforts in
this crucial infrastructure sector.
The experience of private sector nanced projects in the road sector during about last one
and a half decade is a mix bag of success and failures. The issues and aspects involved in the
road sector have their own complexities and the same gets more compounded when for thesame issues multi-organization participation is involved. As of now both school of thoughts
exists i.e. one which supports the creation of regulator for the road infrastructure sector and
the other does not support for the same. However, the need of the hour is to take a more
pragmatic and positive approach for the betterment of this sector.
A number of infrastructure sector have witnessed creation of regulatory organizations
which includes the power sector, telecom sector, port sector, etc. The commonality as a
result of these regulatory authorities has been in the areas of public/consumer satisfaction,
enhanced public condence and conducive environment for more investment. The biggestenabling condition which gets created on account of regulator in a sector is the creation of
level playing eld between the private and public so that the two become apparently equal
partners in the developmental model.
The need for the regulator in the road infrastructure sector is felt may be because of
managing the policy framework & guidelines as well as implementation/execution of
contractual agreements by the same road owning authorities/organizations. This situation is
more pronounced when the issues related to toll (including policy framework and collection
with monitoring issues), maintenance of level of service, parity of users, safety as well as
satisfaction of road users, technology/techniques choices, use of public money, etc. get
raised.
In private nanced road projects, these issues coupled with the issues related to land
management including land acquisition and other related clearances matters in a road project
suggests for a dedicated organization keeping in view that the concession period in such
projects are for long duration ranging from 12 to 30 years.
From the Editor’s Desk
ROAD SECTOR REGULATOR – A NEED
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EDITORIAL
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013 3
The contractual conicts especially related to assessment of performance across the various
parameters of the stakeholders involved in the project, extension of time or imposition of
penalties on any account are some of the areas which requires timely and relevant solutions
to keep the sector in a robust health. It is not out of place to mention that as per the decisiongiven by Hon’ble Supreme Court in the matter of ‘Today Homes & Infrastructure Limited
Versus Ludhiana Improvement Trust’, the arbitration clause will survive even if the main
agreement between the two parties are void. The long duration private sector nanced
projects in the road infrastructure sector have some inherent risk factors especially related
to assumption of trafc, input cost, tariff, etc. which are also dependent on overall economic
condition and the prediction about overall economic scenario and economic growth rate for
next 12 to 30 year time frame which is not a very easy affair.
The eventualities arising in such scenario and keeping in view the need of not only assetcreation and asset preservation in the road sector but also for optimizing the resources as
well as creating conducive condition for continuous fund ow may support the need of
setting up an independent road regulator which should be independent of executing and
policy making road owning authorities.
“Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see ”
“ Mark Twain”
Place: New Delhi Vishnu Shankar Prasad
Dated: 23rd July, 2013 Secretary General
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4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
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INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013 5
CSIR-CRRI TRAINING PROGRAMMES FOR THE YEAR 2013-2014
TITLE OF THE COURSE DURATIONWITH DATES
COURSEFEE
+ 12.36 % S.T.
COURSECOORDINATOR
A. PAVEMENT ENGINEERING & MATERIALS
Design, Construction and Maintenance ofFlexible Pavements
02-06 Sep., 2013 Rs. 8000/- Dr. P.K. Jain
Rigid Pavements: Design, Construction &Quality Control Aspects
18-22 Nov., 2013 Rs. 8000/- Sh. J.B. Sengupta
Pavement Evaluation Techniques and theirapplications for Maintenance andRehabilitation
16-20 Dec. 2013 Rs. 8000/- Sh. K.Sitaramanjaneyulu
B. ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLANNING &MANAGEMENT
International Course on Dissemination ofHDM-4
16-27 Sep. 2013 Rs.30,000/- Dr. Divesh Tiwari
Geo-Spatial Technology (GIS, GPS, RS etc)for Road and Transportation
06-09 Jan. 2014 Rs. 10, 000/- Dr. B.K. DuaraiSh. A. Mohan Rao
C. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Geotechnical and Landslide Investigationsfor Highway Projects
21-25 Oct. 2013 Rs. 8000/- Dr. Kishor Kumar
D. BRIDGES & STRUCTURES
Bridge Design and Construction 25-29 Nov. 2013 Rs. 8000/- Dr. Lakshmy P.
E. TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) andEnvironmental Clearance Process for Road& Highway Projects
02-05 Dec., 2013 Rs. 10, 000/- Dr. Niraj Sharma
Customized Tailor Made Programmes:
In addition to the above CRRI also organises customized tailor made programmes as per the clients requirements.
Course Fee: The course fee as indicated above is payable in advance by crossed bank draft infavour of “Director, Central Road Research Institute” payable New Delhi.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION & SENDING NOMINATION CONTACT:
Shri T.K. Amla,Head & Course Organiser,
Information, Liaison & Training,Central Road Research Institute,P.O.CRRI, Delhi-Mathura Road,
New Delhi – 110 025
Phone: 91-11-26921939,Fax: 91-11-26845943, 26830480
Telefax: 91-11-26921939E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
Website: crridom.gov.in
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
ENGINEERING CHALLENGES ON CONTROLLING ROAD
ACCIDENT (CASE STUDY)
NANDANANDAN DAS*
* Former E-in-C- cum Secretary, Works, Govt. of Odisha
ABSTRACT
It is true that “Death is imminent” for any living being. But Death
due to road accident is maximum for human beings in our country.
This is due to lack of awareness among common people and also
lack of government administration as covered in the various
Paragraphs on Primary Cause of accidents on road. There are
various reasons for occurring road accident in the country. If all
the concerned authorities and the people, in general are careful
and sincerely adopt the principles of road safety and abide by it,
then the road accidents can be avoided. Author has taken care
of all most all points considering from various angles and cited
here for control of accidents in reality. He has put forth various
means about safety on road as per actual performances duringhis long experience on different types of road projects. The topic
“Controlling road accident-Road accident-Over view” put forth
by Er Nandanandan Das, was critically discussed and approved
by technical experts of works department of Government of
Odisha during 2001. These have been circulated to all engineering
departments as ideal guide as per the recommendation of the
committee. Lot of methods for prevention of accidents have been
codied by IRC for implementation but author has cited here in
totality, considering the reasons of accidents and suitable remedies
in general. These cover even measure existing IRC codes. These
may be further analyzed and detailed for covering better safety on
road accidents.
1 INTRODUCTION
Role of road net work system in the Country is known
to every body. Development of road system counts
towards the development of the country. Now a lot of
efforts have been taken for improving the road network
system in the country. The speed of the vehicle can be
maintained on road at 100 km/hr. There are sizeable
increase of vehicles on transportation system in the
country after independents.
It is noticed either road in bad condition or in good
condition, accidents occur frequently. In our country
trafc is mixed type. Different types of vehicles
such as cycles, rickshaws, auto rickshaws, motor
bikes, cars, tractors, trucks, buses, long tailors, even
pedestrians etc are allowed to pass on the road.
That means road network system of India should be
adopted, considering all these factors of mixed trafcs.
Generally road accidents are occurred due to various
reasons. When any accident occurs, people think, it
is by chance or desire of God but there is particular
cause for each and every accident. If cause of each
accident is known then the remedies for these can be
adopted to avoid accidents.
It is observed although the speed of vehicle is more
than 140 km/hr in most of the developed countries, the
accidents are less. Whereas, although speed of vehicles
is less in India, the number of accidents are more. Due
to accident, there is a lot of damage of personal and
national property, which also leads to human loss. The
places where repeated accidents occur, are known as
BLACK SPOT areas. If the types of accidents are
known and remedial measures are taken suitably as
antidote to treatment then, the lot of accidents can be
avoided.
Primary Causes of Accidents on Road
● Due to bad driving.
● Due to drowsiness of driver.
● Due to mechanical trouble of vehicle.
● Due to carelessness by the trafc.
● Due to sudden entry of cattle, goats and
other animals.
● Due to lack of civic sense of the trafc.
● Due to alcoholic & drug affect by drivers
and pedestrians.
● Due to defectiveness of road or
deciencies in road systems.
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INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013 7
2 REASONS OF ACCIDENTS AND
REMEDIES IN DETAIL
2.1 Due to Bad Driving
Many accidents are occurred due to driving of
vehicles by the inexperienced drivers. Therefore, it is
very much necessary to issue driving licenses, after
proper driving tests. In no case driving licenses should
be issued without proper driving test. In this respect
both transport authorities and the drivers should
maintain awareness because their slight slackness in
this respect, will create a loss of life & property. In
some countries in Europe the driving is one regular
study like technical course.
2.2 Due to Drowsiness of Driver
Many a time due to long driving, mostly after taking
food, the driver feels fatigue, relaxed and drowsiness,
which becomes the cause of accidents. When the driver
feels drowsiness, he should take tea, brittle and should
take rest for some time, before driving further.
On consultation with the police authorities, it has
been noticed that in some particular time & area, the
repeated accidents are occurred i.e. black spot areas,although there is no visibility of technical defects on
road system. These are due to driving after taking food,
feeling drowsiness after particular time. Locating
such type of spots, the resting places, which should
be provided on the side of road for taking rest by the
drivers.
2.3 Due to Mechanical Trouble of Vehicle
Generally the vehicles are not checked up or repaired
periodically in our country for which usually accidents
are occurred due to mechanical problems. Therefore,
acts should be formed for periodical check up for all
vehicles. Periodical maintenance certicate should
be obtained & produced whenever required by the
R.T.O & police authority. It should be ensured that
there should not be any slackness or irregularity while
issuing such certicates.
2.4 Due to Careless Driving by the Driver
Many time the drivers drive the vehicles carelessly and
become over condent, for which a lot of accidents
are occurred. In our country, Everybody wants to go
rst. Therefore, when one nds a little gap between
two vehicles, a driver tries to push in between, for
which most of the accidents are occurred. These types
of accidents can be avoided only by strict awareness
of the drivers. During driving of vehicles, the drivers
should not use mobile phones, If It is very much
required to use phone, it is advisable to stop the vehicle
on side for using the mobile phone. In no case the
driver should be unmindful, superuous and careless
during driving. In developed countries, generally the
one driver gives indication to the other driver to gorst. Therefore, although the vehicles in countries like
France, German, America and many other countries
move very fast, the accidents are very less in compare
to our country.
2.5 Due to Sudden Entry of Cattle, Goats and
Other Animals
At times when vehicles are moving fast, lot of
accidents are occurred due to sudden entry of goats,
dogs, cows, cats, bulls with ghting, child, cyclists,even other vehicles & running of the person without
locating the trafc from the both sides. In developed
countries generally grills, safety barriers, and guard
rails etc are provided to check against such type of
accidents. In those countries bulls, cows, goats and
dogs etc do not move on the road like our country.
These animals are dealt separately. Sudden entry to
the road is never advisable. For this awareness among
the people is very much required.
2.6 Due to Lack of Civic Sense of the Trafc
Generally many accidents occur due to lack of civic
sense. So civic of road trafc should be introduced
from the primary education of the child, to increase
awareness for use of road. The principles of movement
of trafc in India are to keep to the left side of the road.
Any fast moving vehicle while overtaking, should
move on the right of the front vehicle, provided the
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
front vehicle has given indication to pass. When two
vehicles are coming from different directions, the 3rd
vehicle should not try to enter in between the gap.
Many a time if a truck is moving from one side and
bus is coming from other side, scooter or cyclist triesto pass in between the gap for which accident happens
on the road. This is only because of the impatience
of the driver to go rst. Many cycle riders carelessly
during riding, face accidents. To go fast some motor
cycle riders move on the road zigzag way from one
side to other side of the road locating gap in between
the vehicles, create situation of accident. Many a
times some friends move together on the road and they
obstruct the road trafc for which many accidents also
occur. They should move on the footpath at the left
side edge as per the trafc rule. Therefore, the drivers
should follow the trafc rule & indications which are
given on the road side sign board. The sign boards on
the roadside indicate the drivers to move as per the
situation of road.
The drivers of different vehicles, moving on the
road in same direction, should follow some safe
distances in between their vehicles and the vehicles
in front, in order to avoid collision, if front vehicle
applies brake in unavoidable circumstance. This gap
is known as braking distance. This braking distance
depends on different types of vehicles with different
speeds moving of the road. This type of breaking
distance can be indicated on the side of road by the
trafc authorities to grow awareness on the people.
These types of activities will reduce the possibility of
accident.
In Paris and border of Italy there was an accident
of burning of a petrol bunker on 24th March 1999
inside a tunnel (11.6km) in “Mont Blanc”. Due to this
there were 39 death and 10 cars with 23 lorries were
damaged. Subsequently it was codied to maintain
the safe distance of 100m in between the front and
rear vehicle in side the tunnel.
When both the gates are closed in any railway level
crossing, it is usual practice to cover both side lanes
on both sides of gates by the trafc. These are due to
lack of common sense of drivers. For this unnecessary
jam is created after opening of the gates. In developed
countries, the drivers follow the trafc rule strictly.
In India suppose by chance any vehicle becomes out
of order and stuck on the road, usually both lanes
are covered with both way trafc, for which jam is
created. These are all due to lack of common sense
and awareness. In this case the trafc on left side lane
should be used and other side should be left vacant for
in coming of other side vehicles to avoid jam.
2.7 Effect of Alcoholic and Drugs on Drivers and
Also Pedestrians
On principle, none should drive the vehicle after taking
alcohol or drug. One must realize any accident occurs
due to one’s such activities, it is harmful to individualas well as to all. Similarly a drunkard while moving on
the road may loose his sense and meet accident, so the
pedestrians must not move on the road as drunkard or
using drug. Police must be very much active to check
on the matter and take immediate action over it. Driver
should always remember that the life of passengers
and the vehicles depends on his type of driving.
2.8 Due to Deciency or Defectiveness of
Construction of Road System
Major accident are occurred due to defect of road or
deciency of road construction system. Generally
about the 60% accidents are occurred due to deciency
in road system. These type accidents happen due
to technical ignorance or by the negligence of the
concerned engineers during execution of road work. If
any accident occurs, general opinion of the common
people are that these happen by chance or it is desire
of God.
The road network system is different, location wise.The road system of Odisha is not same as Darjeeling,
Shimla, even Rajasthan. Such difference on road
system depends on longitude, latitude, forest area,
hilly area, desert, coastal area, water logging area,
cyclone and ood affected area etc. Actually the road
policy of Indian Roads Congress is adopted all though
the country. The constructional method of road system
should be adopted as per the situation and environment
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013 9
all over the country. Some precautionary measures on
road accidents have been adopted in real practice in
the State of Odisha. The same have been cited here in
detail item wise.
PARTICULAR METHODS FOR AVOIDING
ACCDIENT ON ROAD
2.8.1 Where in any town or market area, road and
the road side land are mostly in same level for which
random entry of cross trafc like cyclist, motor cyclist,
running of different persons on road cross wise create
accident on the road. It is suitable to provide grill or
Pedestrians Guard Rail (PGR) to restrict the random
entry of the trafc. Another method for separating
the road from the road side land, provision of V-type
drains are recommended. These will restrict the sudden
entry of cross trafc to the road. This will minimize
the accident on road. A typical section vide Fig.1 -As
road safety measure:-
Fig. 1
The drain should continue from the formation edge
of the road. Guard posts should be xed to identify
the edge of road. Due to such type of drain, accident
also minimize in town, market and village areas. It
restricts the random entry of trafc from the adjacent
land or locality to road directly. At restricted places
passage should be provided for entry of local trafc.
The Hume pipe culverts may be provided in suitable
locations with sufcient width so that the trafccoming from the outer to inner side of road can see the
trafc from the both ways on the main road. This was
adopted in places like Kansbahal, Jalan petrol pump,
Rajgangpur, Jharsuguda, Vedabyas etc and found
success in Sambalpur - Rourkela road.
There are three types of advantages for adopting such
V- type of drain.
2.8.1.1 This type of drain acts as prevention of
accidents
2.8.1.2 During rainy days due to rise of water table
inside the ground, generally there is ingress of water
from neighboring land to inside of the road and there
will be vertical action of water pressure under bottom
of road. Provision of Such type of drain acts as cutoff
between road and side land. This has been adopted
practically in Sambalpur –Rourkela road (SH-10) and
found successful.
2.8.1.3 This drain also carry the storm water from the
road and also from road side land. Therefore, road is
better maintained.
2.8.2 Mostly in curve and junction of road, the clearsight distance is to be maintained. Therefore, any
structure or plantation of tree should not be there
inside of the curve because these obstruct the sight
distance, that means there will not be clear vision
either during running and over turning. The building
and plants may be in outer side of the curve.
2.8.3 Humps of the road create inconvenient for the
ow of trafc. At times the humps are of abnormal size
for which many accidents occur. Humps are provided
for checking the speed of vehicle. These are mostlynear any road crossing and school area. Generally in
many locations, the humps are provided on road due
to repeated accidents, already occurred. If one tries
to nd causes of accident, it would be noticed that
there must be one cross road connecting the main
road. The reasons of accident may due various causes,
such as Cross road meet the main road in steep grade,
there must be lot of structures, betel shops and trees at
turning places, which obstruct the sight distance. The
trafc coming from the cross road, meet accident on
the main road for which generally humps are provided
on the main road to avoid such accident. A typical
road junction as per Fig. 2 is suggested as remedial
measure. There should be curve entry from connecting
road to main road. There should not be any obstacles
on the curve side to have proper sight distance. Instead
of providing humps on main road, rumblers should be
provided at a distance of 10m as per the standard and
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
that should be on the cross road. The rumblers should
be extended from edge to edge on connecting road.
No cross trafc should enter the main road with high
speed. Rather these trafc should be cautious while
entering to main road.
Fig. 2
Therefore the level of connecting road should be
maintained as per the level of edge of main road,
providing proper camber on the leveled part of such
road for a length of 15 meters and after which road
should negotiate with exiting road in grade. To provide
such type of junction on the road, all the engineeringdepartments of government of Odisha have been
intimated as an ideal guide to restrict the accident.
Author had given lot of proposals on improvement on
road to CGM, NHAI during 2005, it is very much well
coming that the very typical method have already been
adopted in small road crossing in the road system.
2.8.4 Changing the direction of road in closer interval
should be avoided to minimize the accident.
2.8.5 Due to carelessness in providing transition
between the curve and straight edge of the road near
Sundargad in SH-10, there were a lot of accidents.
Therefore, transition should be as per the proper
design and proper super elevation should be provided
in transition portion. Lacking of proper slope in transit
portion has caused lot of accident as experienced.
2.8.6 Direct grade should not be ended on the junction
of the road and also approaches of bridges and culverts,
rather suitable grade can be adopted after maintaining
the leveled approaches for a length of minimum 15m.
Generally it is noticed that the joint of culvert and
starting of approach of road is settled, for which
lots of accidents and inconvenience on movement of
trafc are occurred. This is due to under compaction
of approach near abutment. The earth work from the
rst layer and in subsequent layers should be bent
vertically towards abutment so that the compaction by
roller can be made properly on the edge of abutment.
The typical section as per Fig.3, indicates the method
of compaction layer wise.
Fig. 3
2.8.7 During improvement of Rourkela and
sambalpur road, lots of road furniture such as sign
board, delineators, e.t.c were put on the side of road.
These items were very precious, as per international
standard. It was observed that after some days the roadfurniture were stolen and broken by the miscreants.
These furniture were visible at night. But after stolen
of materials, the cheap type of furniture were used for
which the position of furniture were not visible during
night. Therefore number of accidents increased. These
should be insured against theft and damage.
2.8.8 Super elevation should be provided as per the
design of curve. The slope of Super elevation should be
from inner to outer edge of the curve. Super elevation
on curve part of road, was inner edge of curve toouter edge of carriage way and outer shoulder was in
camber in Sambalpur- Rourkela road. Therefore, there
were lot of accidents, while crossing of third vehicle
on the upper shoulder by chance. This was rectied on
the remedial measure in road accident in the state of
Odisha. Of course providing slope from inner to outer
edge in curve part of road has been codied in IRC
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standard. Such type of slope should be maintained
in transition part also. Providing the slope in super
elevation depends on type of curve with it’s radius
of curvature. Due to non provision of proper super
elevation in any curve there is possibility of accident.Guard posts should be provided in curve and transition
part of the road which will indicate the existence of
curve.
2.8.9 It is desirable to have road side plantation,
therefore it is always advisable to retain one side trees
of the road at the time of widening the road.
2.8.10 If the number of curves are more in closer
interval, the possibility of road accidents increase.
More number of curves increase the length of road.
For which the time period covering the more length of
road increases and also the maintenance expenditure
becomes more. It is seen generally roads are improved
on existing road which are having number of curves to
avoid land acquisition. On the other hand, comparing
the cost, improvement of existing road with more
number of curves to new straight road with land
acquisitions may be more. Therefore, only unavoidable
curves should be allowed during improvement of
road.
2.8.11 It was experienced that the delineators used
in Sambalpur- Rourkela-SH-10 were no doubt very
much welcoming but these were stolen and damaged
due to activities of miscreants later on. The fruitful
purpose of proving delineator was unsuccessful and
more number of accidents occurred. Subsequently
these were replaced by guard posts with reecting
paint. Therefore, guard posts may be used in place of
delineators as per the situation.
2.8.12 When the road is passing through congested
area, grill on both side of road may be provided to
restrict random entry of cross trafc. If more width
of land is available, the main road can be elevated
above 1m height and service road on both sides can
be provided to allow local trafc as grade separator.
This will reduce jam and will be economical.
2.8.13 Sudden rise and fall of road vertically creates
accident. Step should be taken to avoid it.
2.8.14 Odisha is one ood and cyclone affected area.
During 1999 due to super cyclone and ood, most of
the roads were submerged in water and roads were
damaged. Therefore, height of road should always be
higher than the H.F.L. The bridges and culverts shouldhave sufcient vantage to accumulate ood discharge.
This will minimize ood on road. It is experienced
during cyclone of 1999 that the falling of trees on the
road created problem for transportation of essential
communities. Even falling of big plants damage the
electric and phone lines. Therefore, plantation of
small verities of trees of maximum height 5m should
be planted at 3m away from edge of road formation,
so that the falling of trees by cyclone will not obstruct
the trafc nor create any hindrance for transportationof essential commodities. The electric and phone lines
should be always away plantation line.
2.8.15 It is not desirable to plant the fruit bearing trees
near side of the road. Because the people generally
will be interested to use different means to get fruits
for which there will be disturbance of the movement
of trafc. Small verities of trees like Akashiya,
Krusnachuda, Baula, Karanja, small verities of Neem
and such other similar type of plants of height within
5m should be planted at a distance of 3m from road.Same variety of plants should not be planted for a
longer stretch. Because this may create monotony to
driver while moving on the road for a longer stretch.
This monotony at time creates accident. Therefore, it
is advisable to plant trees of same variety for a stretch
of three kilometers maximum, by which the monotony
on driving will be minimized.
2.8.16 Due to lack of proper maintenance of road, in
many places, the shoulders on both sides of carriage
way, are washed out which create pot holes andundulation on shoulder and creates level difference
on road. This becomes cause of accident. Therefore,
care should be taken to level the shoulders with proper
camber by using earth or morrum and compacting by
roller properly.
2.8.17 The width of road should be maintained same
through out to avoid accident.
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2.8.18 It is seen that there are trees, electric line,
phone line etc. on the road within road formation edge
for which lots of accidents are occurred. Therefore,
such type of any structure should not on road.
2.8.19 In two lane road, having heavy movement oftrafc and if there is availability of sufcient width
of road, then the road should be made four lane
with provision of median as per the design standard.
Since there will be ow of trafc from both of sides
separately, accident can be avoided.
2.8.20 Road side light arrangement should be made
for proper vision at night. Now a days the lighting
arrangement by solar energy system can be used for
illumination at night.
2.8.21 The existing narrow bridges and culvertsshould be widened and extra lanes may be provided
to accommodate the present trafc. While proceeding
from wide road to narrow bridges and culverts guard
posts at intervals should be xed to indicate the narrow
approach toward the bridge. Reecting paints should
be marked on the guard post, So that this will be
visible at night. Road also be painted with reecting
marking. These indicate the border of carriage ways.
2.8.22 Generally it observed due to parking of different
vehicles, such as trucks, buses, cars, tractors and motor
cycle on the road, trafc congestion is created, which
is also cause of accident. Therefore, suitable parking
places should be provided at interval to avoid such
problems.
2.8.23 In our country there are mixed trafc such as
cyclist, rickshaw, motor bike, tempo, tractor, truck,
bus etc. Therefore, road marking with different
indications should be made to segregate the different
trafcs. Pedestrians should walk on foot path only.
2.8.24 Lot of accidents are occurred due to advisement
hoarding in different places of road. This diverts theattention of drivers. Therefore, the hoarding may only
be provided where these will not divert the attention
of drivers.
2.8.25 It is observed in many places the black toping
part of road is found very smooth. It is due to excessive
contents of bitumen in bituminous layer. During hot
season due to melting of bitumen huge bleeding on
the road surface is found. It seems as if road is in very
good condition. Due to smoothness of road there is
less friction effect on vehicle on the road. So at the
time of requirement of brake the vehicle slips and at
time meets with accident. When there is slight rain, themoisture contain on the road acts as viscous, therefore
the vehicle looses friction effect and tends to meet
accident. Author had experienced of one such type of
accident in NH-6 near Chhatabar, Odisha in similar
principle. Precautionary measures should be taken to
avoid use of excess of bitumen during construction of
road.
2.8.26 Accidents in hilly areas is usual matter, since
most of the hilly roads are narrow and not as per the
design standard. Therefore, the hilly roads should
be properly design to avoid such accident. The welltrained drivers should be allowed to move in such
hilly area.
2.8.27 Besides engineering measures, there is a need
for trafc regulation and proper education of the road
users. The driving silence system should be more
rigorous. Facility should be provided for imparted
proper training to the drivers. Registration to only
road worthy vehicles should only be renewed.
2.8.28 Trafc regulation should be strictly introduced
in educating the lower age group to develop civicssense in general.
3 CONCLUSIONS
An analysis of accident data indicates that not only
driver’s fault but also public carelessness is mainly
responsible for the majority of the accidents and
fatalities. Studies undertaken abroad have revealed
that reduction in accidents to the extent of 20 percent
is possible by taking recourse of proper engineering
measures through planning, design, construction and
maintenance of roads. An accident prone spot i.e.
black spot areas may be identied and separate fund
may be created out of the motor vehicle taxes for
improvement of the accident prone spots.
Proper and detailed data on accidents are not available
in our country. It is being collected by police from
their view point. The transport department collects
accident statistics involving their transport corporation
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vehicles. Therefore, a separate Road safety cell,
consisting of Engineer, Police, Transport, Local
representative, Concerned NGOs, should be created.
The name of the cell may be named as “NATIONAL
INTEGRATED ROAD SAFETY CELL” (NIRSC).They should be responsibility for collecting and
analyzing data of all accidents and making specic
recommendations for averting accidents. To reduce
frequency of accidents, the data regarding type of
accidents (i.e. motorized or non-motorized), specic
months and days of accidents, maximum types of
vehicles involved, reason of accident, fatality rate,
difference in occurrence of road accidents before and
after creation of Trafc Aid Post if any, etc. may be
collected from accident prone location. Since, the
geometric design of the highway has a direct effect onaccident rate both in terms of number and severity, the
design of various road elements like vertical prole,
horizontal alignment, cross sectional features should
take in to account the road safety measures.
Author had experienced in working in Daitary to
Paradeep port (Express way project) in Odishafrom 1965 to 1975 and in charge of Sambalpur to
Rourkela road, ADB project from 1996 to 1999.
The above possible data have been arrived out of
long experience and many are found successful on
execution. All possible efforts have been made to
cover the possibility of accidents. Further detailing
in many points are required to overcome some type
of accidents. Little care during execution can avoid
many accidents. In India the road policy is adopted as
per guide line of IRC. There are still lots of data yet
to be included in IRC standard, which have not beenreported by experienced engineers.
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14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
DAMAGING EFFECTS OF SUPER SINGLE TYRES : AN
INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE
ABHISHEK MITTAL* & DR . SUNIL BOSE**
* Scientist, Flexible Pavement Division
** Scientist & Head (Retd.), Flexible Pavement Division
ABSTRACT
Super single tyres are becoming popular in various countries
abroad because of the several advantages offered by such tyres
over dual wheel tyres. However, on the other hand, they have
become a matter of great concern for highway engineers because
of more damaging effect on the pavements by such super single
tyres. Super single tyres induce higher contact stresses on the
pavements and thus reduce the life of the pavements. There have
been many studies worldwide to assess the damaging effects
caused by use of such tyres on the pavements. Many AcceleratedPavement Testing (APT) programs are using super single tyres in
their research studies. This paper discusses about effects of super
single tyres compared to dual wheel tyres based on the studies
conducted worldwide.
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of “wide base” or “super single” tyres in
lieu of the conventional dual wheel conguration has
become increasing commonplace in USA, Canada,
South Africa and Europe. The reasons provided bythe tyre manufacturers for the increased popularity of
these tyres include lower rolling resistance, reduced
dead weight, reduction in fuel consumption, small total
contact area, improved riding qualities, off-the-road
mobility, and a high-load front axle capacity. Super-
single tyres induce higher contact stresses, which
might be two times the ination pressure, resulting
in more adverse effects on the pavement structure.
This high contact stress can cause high stresses inthe deep pavement layer, which is likely to damage
the subgrade layer. Therefore, it becomes necessary
to evaluate the destructive effect of trucks utilizing
this type of tyre with that induced by the conventional
dual wheel conguration. Many studies have been
conducted across the world in this regard. This paper
captures all this information and discusses the effects
of super single tyre compared with the effects caused
by the conventional dual wheel tyres.
Fig. 1 Examples of Dual Tyre Assembly and
Wide Base Single Tyre
2 REQUIREMENTS FOR GROSS VEHICLE
WEIGHTS AND AXLE WEIGHTS
As per the notication of Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways, Government of India, the maximum
gross vehicle weight and maximum safe axle weight for
various vehicle categories and axle load combinationsare given in Table 1.
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
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Table 1 Specication of Maximum Gross Vehicle Weight and Maximum Safe Axle Weight[1]
Transport Vehicles Category Maximum Gross Vehicle
Weight
Maximum Safe Axle Weight
I. Rigid Vehicles
(i) Two Axle
Two tyres on front axle
Two tyres on rear axle
12.0
6 tonnes on front axle
6 tonnes on rear axle
(ii) Two Axle
Two tyres on front axle, and
Four tyres on rear axle
16.2
6 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle
(iii) Three Axle
Two tyres on front axle, and
Eight tyres on rear tandem axle
25.0
6 tonnes on front axle
19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
(iv) Four Axle
Four tyres on front axle, and
Eight tyres on rear tandem axle
31.0
12 tonnes on two front axle
19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
II. Semi-Articulated Vehicles
(i) Two Axle Tractor
Single Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axleTrailer :
4 tyres on single axle
26.4
6 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on single trailer axle
(ii) Two Axle Tractor
Tandem Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
8 tyres on tandem axle
35.2
6 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle
19 tonnes on tandem axle
(iii) Two Axle Tractor
Three Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
12 tyres on 3 axles
40.2
6 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle
24 tonnes on 3 axles
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Transport Vehicles Category Maximum Gross Vehicle
Weight
Maximum Safe Axle Weight
(iv) Three Axle Tractor
Single Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
8 tyres on single axle
35.2
6 tonnes on front axle
19 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on single axle
(v) Three Axle Tractor
Tandem Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on tandem axle
Trailer :
8 tyres on tandem axle
44.0
6 tonnes on front axle
19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
19 tonnes on tandem axle
III. Truck-Trailer Combinations
(i) Two Axle Truck
Two Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on front axle4 tyres on rear axle
36.6
6 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle10.2 tonnes on rear axle
(ii) Three Axle Truck
Two Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
45.4
(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)
6 tonnes on front axle
19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle
(iii) Three Axle Truck Three Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on rear axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle
45.4(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)
6 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle
19.0 tonnes on rear tandem axle
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Transport Vehicles Category Maximum Gross Vehicle
Weight
Maximum Safe Axle Weight
(iv) Three Axle Truck
Three Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle
54.2
(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)
6 tonnes on front axle
19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle
19.0 tonnes on rear tandem axle
3 TYRE SIZE DESIGNATION
Four types of tyre size designation methods have been
provided in IS:15636-2005[2]
. The naming schemeis standardized and uniform among manufacturers.
As a result, the classication offers much useful
information.
A tyre may be designated as : 208/80 R 15 LT/C
108/104 J, Where,
208 = nominal section width code
80 = nominal aspect ratio
R = Radial (D if Diagonal)
15 = nominal rim diameter code
LT/C = Vehicle Category (Light Truck/
Commercial)
108/104 = Load Index (Single/Dual)
J = Speed Symbol
An explanation of the above terms is given below[2] :
(a) Nominal section width code : A number
representing linear distance between the outsides
of the sidewalls of an inated pneumatic tyre,excluding elevations due to labelling (marking),
decoration or protective bands and ribs.
(b) Nominal aspect ratio : It is hundred times
the number obtained by dividing the number
expressing the section height by the number
expressing the nominal section width, both
dimensions expressed in the same units.
(c) Nominal rim diameter code : A number to
represent the diameter of the rim on which a
tyre is designed to be mounted.
(d) Load index : One or two numbers (higher
number is for single application and lower
number for dual) which indicate the load the
tyre can carry in single and dual operation at
the speed corresponding to the associated speed
category and when operated in conformity with
the requirements governing utilization specied
by the manufacturer.
(e) Speed symbol : Speeds, indicated by a symbol,
at which the tyre can carry the load indicated bythe associated load-capacity index or maximum
rated load.
The nomenclature of tyre has been presented in
Fig.2. It should be noted that the tread width of a
tyre is less than the section width. This fact is
important, as the impact of the tyre to the pavement is
generally accepted to be determined by the footprint
width and not by the nominal section width. For radial
tyres, the footprint width of a tyre generally equals
the tread width (except for strongly over-inated or‘under-loaded’ conditions when the footprint width
may be less). Similarly, the outer diameter of the tyre
is not only determined by its rim diameter, but also
by its sidewall height, indicated by its aspect ratio
and width. This too is important, since the outer tyre
diameter is one of the factors inuencing the footprint
length, together with the wheel load and ination
pressure [3].
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Fig. 2 Nomenclature of Tyre[2]
Different tyre sizes and dimensions can be found on
different axles of trucks and tractors on the one hand
and trailers and semitrailers on the other hand. The
various tyre sizes have been provided in[2] for Trucks,
Buses and Trailers. Only single and dual congurations
are currently being used in India. “Wide base” or
“Super single” tyres have not yet reached the Indian
market. But looking at the world-wise use of such
wide base tyres and the benets for the trucks from
such tyres, it is expected that wide base tyres would
soon enter the Indian market.
4 CONTACT AREA OF TYRES
Contact area is an important consideration from the
point of view of pavement design. It is necessary to
know the contact area between tyre and pavement,
so that the axle load can be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the contact area. Inputs to mechanistic
models of design require the shape of the loaded area
to be dened, and this is generally assumed to becircular. More advanced models, capable of accepting
different areas, are now available, but are not yet
commonly used in pavement design methods.
Not only the size of the contact area is important, but
also its shape. There will be differences in stresses in
the pavement between e.g. a wide and short contact
area, a square area, a circular area, or a narrow and long
area (all having equal area size and vertical contact
stress). Therefore, the distance between the tyres of a
dual assembly (and the absence of such distance for a
wide base single) will also inuence the stresses in the
pavement, as this distance widens the area over whichthe load is distributed.
The size of the contact area depends on the contact
pressure (Huang, 1993). In the multi-layered elastic
theory, the tyre contact area is assumed to be circular.
However, the actual contact area of a truck tyre can
be assumed to be composed of a rectangle and two
semi-circles (Fig.3). The contact area of a super-single
tyre is larger in the transverse direction than in the
longitudinal direction, contrary to what is typically
observed for a conventional dual tyre (Kim, 2008).Fig. 4 shows the imprints of the contact areas of a
Super Single Tyre (SST) and Conventional Dual Tyre
(CDT) (Viljoen, 1982).
Fig. 3 Contact Area for Dual Tyres (a) Actual Area and (b)
Equivalent Area (Huang, 1993)
Fig. 4 Comparison of Measured Contact Imprints
(Viljoen, 1982)
(SST – Super Single Tyre, CDT – Conventional Dual Tyres)
Many researchers, in the past, have either assumed
that the contact area is circular or used the equivalent
contact area shown in Fig.3(b) when analyzing
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pavement loading. The contact area is calculated using
the following equation:
Ac = = 0.5227L2
where Ac is the equivalent contact area, which can be obtained by dividing the load on tyre by the tyre
pressure. For 425/65R22.5 super single tyre, the
contact area is shown by the dotted lines shown in
Fig.3(b), in which the ratio of width to length is
1:0.85 (Kim, 2008).
5 CONTACT STRESS OF TYRES
When a tyre load is applied to the pavement surface,
three contact stress components are generated:
vertical, transverse (or lateral), and longitudinal.
Vertical contact stress is a direct function of the tyre’s
loading and ination pressure, whereas transverse
and longitudinal shear stresses are associated with
bending of the tyre as it is deformed from its normally
toroidal shape at the tyre–road interface (Kim, 2008).
Multilayered elastic theory assumes a uniform contact
stress, equal to the ination pressure. However,
this is not correct. DeBeer et. al. (1997) indicted
that for thin asphaltic road (
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load carried by the tyre remains constant the effect
of increasing ination pressure is to produce higher
contact stresses due to the reduction in contact area.
As previously mentioned, the effect of these higher
contact stresses is more signicant at the surface ofthe pavement since they diminish with depth[10]. High
tyre pressures necessitate high-quality materials in
the upper layers of the pavement, but the required
total depth of pavement is not affected appreciably
by tyre pressures. On the other hand, for a constant
tyre pressure, an increase in total load increases the
vertical stress for all depths[11].
De Beer et al. (1997) reported that tyre ination
pressure predominantly controls the vertical contact
stresses on the pavement at the tyre centre, whereas the
tyre load controls those at the tyre edges. Their analysis
indicated that during instantaneous overloading/
underinated conditions, the maximum Strain Energy
of Distortion (SED) in the asphalt surfacing occurs
close to tyre edges. Under instantaneous uniform
vertical stress conditions, the SED is within the asphalt
surfacing at the tyre centre[12].
7 DEFLECTION STUDIES UNDERCONVENTIONAL DUAL AND SUPER
SINGLE TYRES
A study[13] has been conducted to monitor transient
relative deection and permanent deformation in
pavement layers under conventional dual tyres and
wide base tyres using Multi Depth Deectometers
(MDD). The deection measurements were made on
two in-service asphaltic concrete pavement sections.
Section 1 has a HMA thickness of 38.1 mm (1.5 inch)
and a crushed limestone base course thickness of254 mm (10 inch) overlaying a sandy clay subgrade,
whereas Section 2 has a HMA thickness of 177.8 mm
(7 inch), a crushed limestone base course thickness of
355.6 mm (14 inch) and a 152.4 (6 inch) lime stabilized
subbase overlaying a sandy clay subgrade. The dual
tyres used in the study were 11R22.5, inated to 0.827
MPa (120 psi) (cold) and the wide base singles were
425/65R22.5, inated to 0.896 MPa (130 psi) (cold).
Deections at various depths within the pavement
structure caused by each loading condition under the
two tyre types were recorded at truck speeds ranging
from approximately 6.4 to 88.5 kmph (4 to 55 mph).The signicant ndings of the study are described
below :
● Higher deections were measured under
the wide base single tyres.
● The maximum deection under the wide
base single tyre generally occurs under
the tyre centreline, whereas the maximum
deection under dual tyres occur under
either of the tyres.
● Under similar test conditions, wide base
single tyres are 2.8 times more damaging
than dual tyres on Section 1 (thin pavement
section) and 2.5 times more damaging on
the Section 2 (thick pavement section)
for a speed of 55 mph.
● The tensile strains in the asphalt layer for
Section 1 under wide base single tyres
are about 1.5 times higher than those for
dual tyres. This indicates that the wide base single tyres produce more surface
cracking than the standard dual tyres.
Another study[14] conducted to compare the destructive
effect of wide base tyres and the standard dual wheel
conguration selected transient pavement deection
and surface tensile strain as the two criteria for
evaluating destructive effect. Pavement deection
measurements were obtained with Benkelman Beam
and at three locations, with Linear Variable Differential
Transducer (LVDT) gages. It was concluded thatusing maximum pavement deection as a criterion,
the destructive effect of a wide base tyre with single-
axle loading of 53.4 kN (12,000 lbs) equals or exceeds
that of a dual-wheel conguration at an axle loading
of 80 kN (18,000 lbs). This equivalency, however,
is subjected to a certain degree of variation with
pavement temperature.
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8 STUDIES ON DAMAGING EFFECTS OF
WIDE BASE TYRES
In 1989, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
initiated a research program to assess the impact of
wide base single tyres on exible pavement response
and performance. The study was conducted at FHWA
Accelerated Pavement Testing Facility. The tyres
used in the study were dual 11R22.5 and a single
425/65R22.5. The results of the research[15] show that
425/65R22.5 wide base single tyre was signicantly
more damaging to conventional exible pavements
than traditional 11R22.5 dual tyres. For the same load
and tyre pressure, the wide base single tyre produced
higher vertical compressive strains in all layers of the
pavement, and higher tensile strains at the bottom of
the asphalt concrete layer. These increased strains
translate into greater rutting (upto 2.4 times more)
and greater fatigue damage (upto 4.3 times more)
for pavements trafcked with the wide base single
tyre. For the pavements included in the experiment,
the wide base single tyre produced ruts which were
approximately twice as deep as those from the dual
tyres, and the fatigue life of pavements trafcked
with the single tyre was approximately 25% of thatobtained under the dual tyre loading.
Another study[16] was conducted by California
Department of Transportation for the analytical
evaluation and comparison of the effects of wide-
base tyres and conventional dual tyres under realistic
loading conditions using a computer program called
CIRCLY that uses multilayered elastic theory. The
loading cases considered consisted of (a) non-uniform
vertical stresses only and (b) non-uniform vertical
stresses accompanied by non-uniform inward shearstresses. These inward shear stresses develop from
inward lateral tread movement caused by the side-
wall deection within the contact area. Both loading
cases were assumed to be applied over circular contact
stresses. Three axle congurations were studied with
both wide base tyres and dual tyres. The maximum
legal axle loadings analyzed were : 89 kN for single
axle, 151 kN for tandem axle having 1.22m spacing
between axles and 151 kN for the tridem axle having
1.22m spacing between the axles. The performance
criteria chosen was tensile strains (for fatigue life
determination) and strain energies of distortion (failurecriteria) within the surface layer. The study indicates
that wide base tyres produce 15 to 40 % higher critical
strain values than dual tyres, and 30 to 115 % higher
critical strain energy of distortion values depending
on the axle conguration. It also indicates that when
inward shear forces are considered in the analysis
these percentages shoot up sharply. This indicates that
ignoring the shear stress effects leads to overestimating
the life of the surface layers under actual conditions
of contact stresses. The study also concludes that adenitive tyre load limit does not exist that will enable
one to reliably predict the pavement effects from
wide-base tyres compared with dual tyres under any
axle conguration. However, it also suggests that if a
tyre load limit is required for wide-base tyres it should
be substantially less than values that are typical for
dual tyres. Limits between 60 and 80 N/mm (350 and
450 pounds/inch) are suggested.
Another Study[17] conducted at the LINTRACK
accelerated load testing facility indicates that therutting was more for standard wide single tyre
385/65R22.5 when compared with the standard dual
tyre 315/80R22.5. Also the rutting behaviour becomes
unstable after 20,000 load repetitions for wide single
tyre 385/65R22.5, where as for the standard dual
tyre 315/80R22.5, the rutting behaviour was stable
even after 20,000 load repetitions. Similar results
have been reported in[18] with the difference that the
rutting behaviour under the standard wide single tyre
385/65R22.5 have been reported as stable.
Another study[19] conducted at the Australian
Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) on stabilized
sandstone material reported that rutting under 50 kN
wide single tyre was approximately 2.2 times that
under the 80 kN dual-wheel load.
Hugo[20] reported in his paper that wide-based single
tyres resulted in 1.0 to 2.4 times more rutting than dual
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22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
tyres with majority of rutting in the aggregate base.
Fatigue cracking with wide base tyres is approximately
4.0 times more than dual tyres.
Kim (2008) reported that under elastic-plastic
conditions, super-single tyres induce larger permanent
strains in the pavement layers than conventional
tyres. Rutting damage factors for super-single tyres
compared with dual tyres range from 3.5 to 3.6 and
fatigue damage factor range from 4.9 to 7.6.
Another study[21] was conducted to study the rutting
resistance of different types of binder based on various
laboratory tests and experiments on the circular track
of Laboratorie Central des Ponts et Chaussees (LCPC),
France. The bitumen types used for the wearing course
in the study were a straight-run, conventional 50/70
grade bitumen, an SBS-polymer-modied bitumen,
the Shell Multigrade bitumen, and a hard asphalt
traditionally used for high-modulus asphalt concrete
(EME). The experiment on LCPC’s circular track was
carried out on a pavement consisting of four sectors
constructed with the four different bitumen types.
Both dual and wide single wheels were used in the
study. It was concluded that axles with wide single
wheels are more aggressive than dual wheels. It was
also concluded that the rutting also depends on thetype of asphalt mix, and the more sensitive the asphalt
mix is to rutting, the more pronounced the effect
seems to be.
Another study[22] conducted at the New Zealand’s
CAPTIF also indicates 92% more rutting by wide base
single tyres compared to the conventional duals.
Huhtala et. al.[23] conducted a comparative study
of behaviour of wide base tyres and dual tyres on
bituminous pavements. The uneven distribution of
load on both the dual tyres was also considered in
the study. The uneven load was simulated by tyre
pressures. It was concluded that wide base tyres are
more aggressive than dual tyres by a factor of 2.3 –
4.0 in ideal conditions for dual tyres, whereas wide
base tyres are more aggressive by a factor of 1.2 – 1.9
if they are compared to the most common dual tyres.
Within wide base tyres there were differences found
by a factor upto 1.6 and within wide base tyres wider
tyres are less aggressive.
9 LOAD EQUIVALENCY FACTORS FOR
VARIOUS WIDTHS OF SINGLE TYRES
A study was conducted [24] to develop equivalent wheel
load factors for dual tyres on single axles and 25.4 cm
(10 inch), 30.5 cm (12 inch), 35.6 cm (14 inch), 40.6
cm (16 inch) and 45.7 cm (18 inch) wide single tyres
on single axles for both rigid and exible pavements.
The following relationship was used to develop the
equivalent wheel-load factors :
Fi = N
18 / N
i
Where,
Fi = equivalent wheel load factor, 80 kN
(18-kip) dual tyre, single axles
N18
= repetitions to a serviceability index of
2.5 for an 80 kN (18-kip) dual tyre, single
axle load; and
Ni = repetitions to a serviceability index of 2.5
for the axle load being evaluated
The pavement sections analyzed were 76.2 mm, 152.4
mm and 241.3 mm (3, 6 and 9.5 inch) of asphalt
concrete pavement on 203.20 mm (8 inch) of crushed
aggregate base. A resilient modulus of 2758 MPa
(400,000 psi) and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 was assumed
for asphaltic concrete layer. A Poisson’s ratio value of
0.4 was assumed for the crushed aggregate base and
for the resilient modulus the following relationship
developed based on repeated load triaxial testing was
used.
MR = 2843θ0.6
Where,
MR = resilient modulus, psi, and
θ = bulk stress, psi (σ1 + 2σ3 in the triaxial
test)
The fatigue distress model used in the study is
given below for predicting the number of repetitions
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resulting in fatigue cracking equal to or less than 10
percent of the wheelpath :
Log Nf = 15.947 – 3.219 log (ε/10-6) – 0.854 log
(E*/103)
Where,
Nf = repetitions to failure
ε = maximum tensile strain at the bottom of
the asphalt bound layer, and
E* = resilient modulus, psi
The load equivalency factors developed for a typical
asphalt concrete pavement are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Trafc Equivalency Factors for Single Axles with Single Tyres,
Asphalt Concrete Pavement, and Structural Number (SN) = 4
Axle
Load
(kN)
Equivalent 80 kN Dual Tyre, Single-Axle Loads
Single Tyre Width
10 inch 12 inch 14 inch 16 inch 18 inch
44.5 0.6309 0.4790 0.3731 0.2969 0.24050
53.4 1.0286 0.7809 0.6082 0.4840 0.3921062.3 1.5549 1.1805 0.9195 0.7317 0.59277
71.2 2.2243 1.6887 1.3153 1.0466 0.84793
80.1 3.0502 2.3157 1.8038 1.4353 1.16279
89.0 4.0458 3.0715 2.3925 1.9038 1.54232
97.9 5.2237 3.9658 3.0891 2.4580 1.99136
106.8 6.5962 5.0077 3.9007 3.1038 2.51455
115.7 8.1750 6.2064 4.8343 3.8468 3.11643
124.6 9.9718 7.5705 5.8969 4.6923 3.80141
133.4 11.9979 9.1087 7.0951 5.6457 4.57379142.3 14.2643 10.8293 8.4353 6.7121 5.43778
151.2 16.7818 12.7406 9.9241 7.8968 6.39749
160.1 19.5610 14.8505 11.5675 9.2045 7.45695
169.0 22.6123 17.1670 13.3719 10.6403 8.62014
177.9 25.9458 19.6978 15.3432 12.2089 9.89093
An analysis of the above Table indicates that for
the same axle load, as the width of the single tyre
decreases, the equivalency factor increases which
indicates more damage. As the axle load increases, the
equivalency factor also increases. The data from this
study showed that single tyres can be as much as 25
times more damaging than dual tyres as the axle load
increases and the tyre width decreases. However, the
damaging effect is dampened by the increase in the
width of the single tyres.
The same results have been produced by another
study[25], which states that the damage due to wide
tyres under 9000 kg would be 12 - 13 times more
damaging than the damage caused by dual tyres under
similar loading.
10 THE BEGINNING OF ACCELERATED
PAVEMENT TESTING (APT) PROGRAM
IN INDIA
India has recently embarked on its Accelerated
Pavement Testing (APT) Program with the
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24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, AUGUST 2013
procurement of a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS)
from M/s Dynatest Inc., USA. The HVS Mark IV Plus
was procured by Central Road Research Institute, New
Delhi in 2010 and has been established as a National
Test Facility. The HVS unit was procured with dual
wheels tted on the Carriage Unit. However, most
of the APT programs worldwide are being run with
super single/wide base tyres because they cause more
damage to the pavements compared to the dual wheels
conguration. Therefore, it is suggested that the Indian
APT program should also include super single tyres
in their research program and compare the damaging
effects of such tyres relative to the conventional dual
tyres for the various types of the pavement sections
used in India.
11 CONCLUSIONS
The paper describes a brief review of the studies done
worldwide on the comparison of super single tyres and
dual tyres and their damaging effects on the pavement.
Though super single tyres offer many advantages for
the trucking industry, they are, in fact, more damaging
to the pavements. For this reason, it is suggested that
the APT program at CRRI should be run with the super
single tyres instead of dual tyres. Also, the Equivalency
factors for the damaging effects of super single tyres
should be developed for Indian conditions. With the
growth in the market share of super single tyres in
trucking applications worldwide and the possible
expectation that such tyres would soon Indian market,
it is very much needed that a prediction of accurate
pavement damage quantication associated with super
single tyres be made for Indian conditions through the
use of Accelerated Pavement Testing Facility (APTF)
available at CRRI.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thankfully acknowledge Director, Central
Road Research Institute, New Delhi for his kind
permission to publish this paper.
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LABORATORY PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
A READY-TO-USE PATCH MIX
ABHISHEK MITTAL*, DR . P.K. JAIN** AND AMIT K UMAR ***
* Scientist
** Chief Scientist and Head
*** Technical Assistant
ABSTRACT
Potholes have always been a problem for highway maintenance
organizations because their repair is costly, time-consuming and
do not last long. Potholes always compromise road safety. For
this reason, the agency must repair potholes as soon as it becomes
aware of them. Patching is the common method used to repair
potholes. It is well known that the major cost of patching lies
in preparing and placing the patch rather than the cost of the
patching materials. Therefore, it is desirable that the process of
patching should be simple and use good quality cold mix materials
to make patches last long. For this reason, the repair of heavily
trafcked roads and highway pavements can be done effectivelyand efciently using the ready-to-use patching mixes. The present
paper describes the laboratory testing done on one such ready-mix.
The laboratory testing indicates that the various properties of the
ready-mix such as stability, bond strength, moisture susceptibility
and retained stability have been found satisfactory and meeting
the requirements as per the available specications, suggesting
that the material may be used for repair of potholes and utility
cuts.
1 INTRODUCTION
Roads are the permanent assets built at huge capital
investment for the safe and efcient movement of
goods and passenger trafc. However, the intended
purpose of the roads would not be fullled if it is not
maintained properly. Poor road conditions not only
invite public criticism but also cause huge loss to the
nation in terms of excessive usage of fuel and time.
Unfortunately, every time a vehicle has to slow down
or stop and then accelerate again, due to poor road
conditions, lead to wastage of expensive fuel. Add to
this the wear and tear of every vehicle due to such
poor road conditions and the losses suddenly become
mind-boggling. Therefore, the timely and routine
maintenance of roads by the respective agencies
becomes essential. Funding for rehabilitation and
overlay of these pavements is not likely to keep up
with the demand, requiring more agencies to use the
most cost-effective methods when patching distressed
areas. These patches will also be expected to survive
longer and carry more trafc.
To the road user, pot holes are one of the most
visible and annoying forms of bituminous pavement
deterioration. Potholes have always been a problem for
highway maintenance enormous proportions during
cold, wet periods of the year, when pothole repair is
made more difcult because of adverse weather and
the large number of potholes that seem to appear at
one time.
It is well known that the major cost of patching lies in
preparing and placing the patch rather than the cost of
the patching materials. Therefore, it is desirable that
the process of patching should be simple and use good
quality cold mix materials to make patches last long.
The cold mixes are composed of liquid bitumi