READING SITES
A FRAMEWORK TOWARD COMPREHENSIVE SITE ANALYSIS TEACHING
STRATEGIES
by
NERMEEN DALGAMONI
Bachelor of Architectural Engineering, Al al-Bayt University, 2008
A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Colorado in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Landscape Architecture
Landscape Architecture
2014
ii
© 2014
NERMEEN DALGAMONI
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
iii
This thesis for the Master of Landscape Architecture degree by
Nermeen Dalgamoni
has been approved for the
Landscape Architecture Program
by
Lori Catalano, Chair
Ann Komara
Jody Beck
Joern Langhorst
21 July 2014
iv
Dalgamoni, Nermeen (MLA, Landscape Architecture)
Reading Sites: A Framework toward Comprehensive Site Analysis Teaching Strategies
Thesis directed by Senior Instructor Lori Catalano
ABSTRACT
This thesis explores the importance of the comprehensive reading of sites during
the site analysis phase of the design process. Landscape architects in particular benefit
from critically analyzing sites; their understanding of the specific connections between
landscape and social, cultural, environmental, and political structures is crucial to the
success of their projects. This research also examines different methods used in analyzing
sites over the past few decades; the authors of these methods have significant
perspectives that influenced designers in their careers up to this point. Addressing the
significance, the limitations, and the biases of each method has contributed in
establishing the proposed teaching framework. This framework represents an integrative
method that combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the
academic methods of the evaluation and the documentation of sites. This research also
discusses different teaching methods and tools of discovery that will assist instructors and
students during the reading of sites. This research also acknowledges the biases of
instructors and students as one of the most critical issues students face during the site
analysis phase which can affect their judgments about the site.
Key Words: Site, context, tools of discovery, underlying values, reading sites, site
analysis, and methods in site analysis.
The form and content of this abstract are approved. I recommend its publication.
Approved: Lori Catalano
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Lori Catalano
for her guidance, patience, and endless support throughout the course of this study. I also
wish to thank all the members of my committee, Ann Komara, Jody Beck, and Joern
Langhorst for their valuable participation and insights. I also wish to thank Leila
Tolderlund and Tony Mazzeo for their cooperation. Special thanks to Mr. Don Brandes
for his special support.
I would like to thank my sponsor, Jordan University of Science and Technology
and the faculty of the Collage of Architecture and Design; Professor Natheer N. Abu-
Obeid, Professor Hussain H. Alzoubi, and Professor Raed S. Al Tal for their endless help,
insights, and support.
My final gratitude goes to my sisters; Neveen and Hanin, my brothers; Nawras,
Ahmad, and Mohammed, and to my best friends; Ruba Zuibi and Hagir Baker for their
encouragement and support throughout my education at UCD.
vi
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to my mother Khitam Al Rosan, my husband Tareq
Dalgamoni, and our son Mohammed. Thank you all for your endless support,
encouragement, and understanding. I also dedicate this thesis to the memory of my father,
Adnan Dalgamoni, may his soul rest in peace.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION.……………………………………………………………..……..1
Background.…………………………………………………………....…………...... 2
Objective Statement.……………………………………………………..…………... 5
Scope of Research.…………………………………………………………....……… 7
Research Limitations.…………………………………………………………....…... 7
Thesis Organization.….…………………………………………………………….... 8
II. PROBLEM DEFINITION AND MOTIVATION..……..……...………......……… 10
What is a Site?..……….……………...……………...…………...………….…..…. 12
What is Site Analysis?.……………………………………………......…..…………18
Why is it Important to Analyze the Sites in a Comprehensive Manner? ………....…24
Summary.…………………………………………………………….....……….…...32
III. METHODS OF SITE ANALYSIS ……………………………….…………………35
The Proponents of the Selected Methods.…………………………........................…36
The Technical Method, Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack.…………………………........38
The Scientific Systematic Method, Ian McHarg.....................….................................54
The Context-Sensitive Method, James A. LaGro.……………...……………………62
The Experiential Method, Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag……….................……74
Summary............................................................................................................…......81
IV. THE TEACHING OF SITE ANALYSIS.…………………………………...………90
viii
Teaching Methods.…………………………………………………..……….…....…90
Tools of Discovery.…………………………………………………..………………94
Understanding Biases.……………………………………………..…………..…....102
Summary.………………………………………………………...……………....…104
V. THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING SITE ANALYSIS.………..106
The Concept of the Teaching Framework.……………………………...….…..…..106
The Structure of the Teaching Framework.………………………..……….………109
Student Learning Outcomes…………………………………….……………..……113
Summary.…………………………………………...…………………………....…114
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION…...………………..………………………116
Research Summary.………………………………..…….…………………………116
Discussion.……………………………………………….…………………………119
Future Research.………………………………………..…………………………..121
BIBLIOGRAPHY..………………………………………………………..………...….124
APPENDIX
A.……………………………………….....................………………………………….129
B.……………………………….....................………………………………………….130
C.………………………….....................……………………………………………….139
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
2.1 Selected development constraints............................................................................... 28
3.2 Examples of physical, biological, and cultural attributes that may be mapped at the
site scale.......................................................................................................................63
3.3 Selected physical factors to consider in site planning and design...............................67
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2.1 The three distinct areas of a site based on Burns and Kahn classification..................17
2.2 Spatial hierarchy-regions, landscapes, sites.................................................................19
2.3 Information from the site analysis is utilized by many professions engaged in the land
development process....................................................................................................24
2.4 Constraints and opportunities may be on-site or off-site attributes that shape
development suitability patterns and influence the spatial organization of program
elements on the site....................................................................................................29
3.5 A sketch of a neighborhood street by a resident of San Francisco..............................53
3.6 Composite “physiographic obstructions”....................................................................58
3.7 Recommended minimal- social- cost alignment..........................................................59
3.8 Summary map of water and land features for part of the metropolitan area...............60
3.9 Site planning and design process.................................................................................62
3.10 Site inventory.............................................................................................................65
3.11 Site analysis...............................................................................................................65
3.12 Overlay analysis using a linear combination approach..............................................72
3.13 The Red Dot Experiment...........................................................................................79
4.14 Different diagramming scales to explain different site's qualities.............................95
4.15 Mental map: Problems of the Boston image..............................................................96
4.16 GIS map for the recreational facilities at Globeville and Elyria Swansea-Denver…98
4.17 Le Modular, Le Corbusier........................................................................................101
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The notion of “site” has been studied in various approaches such as the technical,
the social, the anthropological, the ecological, and the symbolic approaches. A review of
the related literature, presented in chapter two, shows that there are many significant
methods that influence the research of the designers in different fields. However, no
single method gives a comprehensive image of a site. Each method has developed a
discourse which is oriented toward highlighting one perspective of understanding a site
and eliminates or underestimates the others. Furthermore, few studies have ever focused
on the investigation of the means through which various qualities of a site (such as the
spatial-formal, environmental, operational, and deontological qualities) are represented.
The choice of means is fundamental to the choice of a site, to the subsequent
modifications of that site, and to build on it.1
Landscape architecture has never been just about land manipulation; it touches
history, culture, literature, ecology and more. Landscape architecture is not just about
aesthetic; it is more about affecting human perception and behaviors. The profession of
landscape architecture aims at creating, enhancing, maintaining, and protecting places in
order to be functional, aesthetically pleasing, meaningful, sustainable, and meet human
needs and expectations. Landscape architecture occupies the middle ground between
different disciplines and professions. Discussing site analysis from the perspective of
landscape architect can benefit other disciplines engaged in the design process.
1 Xiaodong Li, “Meaning of the Site: A Holistic Approach Toward Site Analysis on
behalf of the Development of a Design Tool Based on a Comparative Case-Study
between FengShui and Kevin Lynch's system”, (PhD diss. Universiteitsdrukkerij,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1993).
2
This research explores the importance of reading sites in depth; each site has a
unique set of historical, natural, and cultural values that determine how a site is
evaluated. According to Christophe Girot in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape
Architecture”, a designer understands a site by overlaying different analytical layers and
recognizing the visible and the invisible forces.2 The careful analysis of sites and its
context can lead to higher-quality built environments. According to James LaGro, if the
existing conditions of a site, or different sites, are poorly understood, the development for
these sites can result in negative environmental, social, and economic impacts.3
From an educational perspective, this thesis aims at establishing a framework that
expands the ability of students to explore, read, and document sites in a comprehensive
manner. The overarching goal of this study is to help students understand their own
values and biases and to develop their own techniques and tools to enhance the learning
of students and develop their critical thinking skills.
Background
Sites are not just the physical boundaries of a specific land; sites are sets of
environmental and social relationships that form human communities and influence
human actions and behaviors. There are many definitions for the term “site” depending
on the discipline and the context. One of the most well-known definitions in the field of
landscape architecture is Lynch and Hack’s definition. Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack
define that site as a composition "of many factors- above, below, and on the ground- but
2 Christopher Girot, The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York:
Princeton Architectural Press, 1999).
3 James LaGro, Site Analysis, A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and
Site Design, Second edition (John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2008).
3
these factors are interrelated."4 According to Lynch and Hack, a site is a crucial aspect of
the environment; it has "biological, social, and psychological impact that goes far beyond
its more obvious influence on cost and technical function."5
In “Site Matters”, Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn discuss what constitutes a site in
design. They classify three distinguished areas of a site. The first one is the area of
control which identifies the physical site within its property lines. The second area is the
area of influence which comprises systems and forces that affect a site even if they do not
take place within its boundaries. The third classified area, according to Burns and Kahn,
is the area of effect which reflects the domains beyond the given site that are affected by
design.6 In this context, a site is understood at three different levels.
In many situations, designers do not take the time to explore sites in depth, and
they tend to analyze them from a distance. Technology (such as Geographic Information
System (GIS) and Google Maps), budget, and time affect their ability to gain deep
interaction with sites.7 As technology grows, there is a possibility that site analysis will
be just about information and data, and overlook other important aspects such as the
values, the interpretation, the biases, and other contextual forces that make a site a
meaningful part of the whole.
4 Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1983), 30.
5 Ibid, 2.
6 Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies
(New York: Routledge, 2005).
7 Tim Waterman, The Fundamentals of Landscape Architecture (Fairchild Books, 2009).
4
Landscape architects need to read sites in depth; their understanding of specific
connections between landscape and social, cultural, environmental, and political
structures is crucial to the success of their projects. Many professions are engaged in the
site analysis process (architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, engineering,
etc.). Landscape architects, for example, focus on the entire arrangement of a site. The
analysis generated by landscape architects includes information about the location of
buildings, grading, stormwater management, construction, and planting. Similarly,
architects need to consider the relations between a building and its surrounding context to
reflect a complete image of their designs. Social studies also have a place in the site
analysis phase; the understanding of demographics, income level, and ethnicity play a
significant role in the formation of a site. A comprehensive reading of a site can evolve
the awareness and appreciation of a designer to include the social and cultural
considerations.
Much information generated by the site analysis is provided by other disciplines.
For instance, landscape architects must be able to understand information provided by
natural, social, and cultural sciences and to interpret relevant findings from these
disciplines. Information from the site analysis phase will be used and applied by many
professions engaged in the land development process. Thus, it is very critical to
understand what the term “site” means.
During the past few decades, many architects, planners, theorists, and landscape
architects discussed the process of site analysis. Even more, they published many books
explaining and promoting their ideas about sites. These ideas have influenced designers'
use of different approaches in analyzing sites for a long time. However, each method has
5
its limitations and biases that may not always result in a comprehensive understanding of
a site.
After reviewing the existing methodologies of site analysis, this thesis proposes a
teaching framework that increases the ability of students to decide which method to use,
how to use it and in what particular context. It is critical for students to understand what
is missing in each method and the inherent biases in each of them. On the other hand,
exploring these methods help students navigate their own value system. The proposed
framework also suggests, in some situations, creating a hybrid method by overlaying
these methods to achieve a more comprehensive reading of a site.
Objective Statement
The design process, in particular site analysis, involves many participants
including architects, landscape architects, developers, etc. The information involved in
the site analysis process is getting more complicated. The need for new approaches and
methods that address the cooperation between these various disciplines engaged in the
site analysis phase is needed. The decision making process requires a designer to consider
the correlation among the components of a site. Having a comprehensive set of concepts
and tools during the site analysis phase will lead to more suitable decisions.
Research Questions
The new site analysis approach proposed in this research is an integrative
approach that addresses a comprehensive perspective of the forces that form sites
(natural, cultural, social, etc.). Therefore, this thesis will answer the following questions:
1. How a site is socially, culturally, and environmentally constructed?
6
2. Why is it important for a landscape architect to understand the underlying values
of a site?
3. What are the limitations of the existing methodologies in site analysis?
4. How can students decide what tools of discovery to use and based on what
criteria?
5. How can an instructor effectively teach site analysis in a comprehensive manner
without imposing his/her values and help students understand their own values
and meanings?
The proposed framework in this research is based on existing methods, and it
expands them within an organized structure that provides flexibility in applying the
appropriate approach based on the different goals of different projects.
Research Methodology
The research presented in this paper examines different methods used in
analyzing sites over the past few decades. These methods are: the Technical Method, the
Scientific Systematic Method, the Context-Sensitive Method, and the Experiential
Method. The authors of these methods have significant perspectives that influenced
designers' understanding and applications during the site analysis phase. A descriptive
research methodology was used for this study to address the significance, the limitations,
and the biases of each method which contributed in establishing the proposed teaching
framework. Using the descriptive research methodology helped acquiring accurate,
factual, and systematic information that provided a comprehensive perspective about
each of these methods.
7
Scope of Research
This thesis proposes a teaching framework that represents an integrative approach
that combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic
methods of evaluation and documentation of sites. The findings of this research state that
although the notion of “site” has already been studied in various methods. On the other
hand, the findings of this research also address that each method is oriented toward
highlighting one perspective of understanding a site and eliminates or underestimates the
others. To gain a better understanding of a site and site analysis, this research classified
these methods based on the approaches of their proponents in site analysis. These
methods are: the Technical Method by Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific
Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro,
and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag. These methods are
the most prevalent in the design profession and still influence the designers’ research in
different fields.
Research Limitations
This research presents and discuses information, insights, and ideas from multi-
disciplinary fields. Based on the time line of this thesis, it was hard to engage all the
methods that have discussed the notion of “site” and “site analysis”. Therefore, this
research discusses the most prevalent methods in the design profession.
The politics of sites is one of the topics that this research does not cover.
Understanding the political forces and their impacts on forming community is
fundamental. Discussing this topic and its wide dimensions requires extensive research
and review of literature and legal documents in various discourses. Based on the limited
8
time of this research and its core targets and goals, this research acknowledges this issue
in general; but does not explore it in depth.
This thesis also presents a framework based on existing methodologies of site
analysis, and is not proposing a new method. This thesis is more oriented toward the
teaching of site analysis rather its application in the professional practice.
Another critical piece that needs additional research and discussion is the inherent
individual biases which is understood by individual cultures. This thesis briefly
acknowledges the biases of instructors and students as one of the most critical issues
students face during the site analysis phase which can affect their judgments about a site.
Teaching biases is a complicated topic and, in many situations, it cannot be avoided.
Thesis Organization
This thesis is presented in six chapters. This chapter, Chapter One (Introduction),
lays out background information about the existing methods in site analysis, and
addresses research questions and objectives. It also discusses the scope and the
limitations of this research.
Chapter Two, (Problem Definition and Motivation), defines the various notions of
“site” and “site analysis” in different discourses and disciplines. This chapter also defines
the terms “reading sites” and “comprehensive site analysis” in the context and the goals
of this research. It also discusses the importance of the comprehensive reading of sites
during site analysis phase of the design process.
Chapter Three, (Methods of Site Analysis), examines the different methods that
have taken place in analyzing sites during the past few decades. Methods discussed in
this chapter are: the Technical Method by Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific
9
Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro
and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag.
Chapter Four, (Teaching Site Analysis), discusses different teaching methods that
can enhance students' learning experience and different “Tools of Discovery” that can
help students in investigating sites. This chapter also briefly acknowledges the biases of
instructors and students as one of the most critical issues students face during the site
analysis phase which can affect their judgments about the site. This chapter also discusses
some ideas that can help instructors and students minimize the individual biases' impacts
during site analysis to enhance students’ learning and develop their critical thinking
skills.
Chapter Five, (The Proposed Framework for Teaching Site Analysis), discusses
the concept and the structure of the proposed framework. This proposed teaching
framework will be the structure to develop a course for teaching site analysis to first year
students in architecture, landscape architecture, and urban planning programs. This
chapter also outlines teaching strategies and techniques along with a syllabus and
examples of assignments.
Chapter Six, (Conclusions and Discussion), discusses the findings presented in the
preceded chapters and summarizes general concepts and guidelines for the proposed
framework for teaching site analysis. This chapter also suggests future research that may
extend the concept and implementation of the site analysis framework proposed in this
research.
10
CHAPTER II
PROBLEM DEFINITION AND MOTIVATION
As noted earlier, the notion of “site” has been studied in various approaches; the
technical, the social, the anthropological, the ecological, and the symbolic approach. The
review of related literature, presented in this chapter, reveals that there are many
significant methods that influence the designers’ research in different fields. However, no
single method gives a comprehensive understanding of a site. Each method has
developed a discourse which is oriented toward highlighting one perspective of
understanding the site and eliminates or underestimates the others.
In “Site Matters”, Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn note that in each of the design
specialty areas, literature about specific locals and projects exists, but none of them
discusses the subject of a site in reference to engage other areas or disciplines. Each
discipline’s concerns during site analysis revolved around the local attributes. This
attitude made the multiple understanding about sites more complicated.
Grappling with site-based issues evokes the analogy of seven blind men
describing an elephant: each depicts vivid aspects within reach but non correlates
to another, and altogether they miss the sense of the overall object of study.1
Burns and Kahn argue that if each discourse discusses the notion of a site without
taking into account other considerations of the different discourses, they will uncritically
iterate their own conceptions of a site which leaves a great deal of knowledge
unarticulated.
To provide an example about a successful experience in exchanging knowledge
and perspectives among different disciplines, Burns and Kahn point at the significant
1 Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies
(New York: Routledge, 2005), xiv.
11
shift in architectural theory in the past thirty years. Burns and Kahn note that the
interaction between architecture and other disciplines (such as philosophy and literary
theory) has led to the positive transformation in the architectural theory from the
consideration of physical conditions toward a progressively abstract array of concerns.
This integration among disciplines has enriched the architectural thinking, and the
architectural discourse has become more broad and inclusive.2
Site analysis is a complex and connected professional practice. New approaches
and methods that address the cooperation between these disciplines are needed. The
decision making process requires a designer to consider the correlation between the
components of a site. Having a comprehensive set of concepts and tools will lead to more
suitable, informed, and critical decisions.
To establish a comprehensive understanding of the notion of a site, designers
must acquire the knowledge and the skills necessary to explore sites in depth. They need
to understand what forces form a site, how a designer investigates it, and what the most
critical information needed to get a comprehensive perception of a site. It is extremely
useful for students to know how a single study of a site can address different forces from
different disciplines. To address these correlated issues, this chapter defines the various
notions of “site” and “site analysis” in different discourses and disciplines. This chapter
also defines the terms “reading sites” and “comprehensive site analysis” in the context
and the goals of this research. It also discusses the importance of the comprehensive
reading of sites during site analysis phase of the design process.
2 Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies
(New York: Routledge, 2005).
12
It is important to note here that this research uses the term “comprehensive” in
describing the targeted reading of sites. In general, comprehensive means:
Covering completely or broadly,
Having or exhibiting wide mental grasp.
In the context of the site analysis, it is understandable that a comprehensive site analysis
vary from one site to another, from one purpose to another, and from one person to
another. Although a designer cannot cover every single detail of a site, or even it is
unnecessary to investigate every aspect giving them the same weight of priority, a
comprehensive site analysis means that a designer needs to investigate a broad range of
aspects of a site to get an exhibit of wide mental grasps and ideas that assist him/her
during the investigation of a site. The topics that need to be addressed during a
comprehensive site analysis will be generated by the site itself, the purpose for this
analysis, and by the set of values and meanings inherent by the individual experience of
the investigator.
What is a Site?
The term “site” in this research is used as a set of environmental and social
relationships that form human communities and influence human actions and behaviors.
Each site has a unique set of historical, natural, and cultural values that determine how a
site is evaluated. Although the word site is quiet simple, this research argues that what
gives a site its uniqueness is the meanings and the values which are inherent from the
surrounding context.
The origin of the term “site” came from the late Middle English (as a noun): from
Anglo-Norman French, or from Latin situs "local position". “Site” as a verb dates from
13
the late 16th century.3 “Site” has many definitions based on the context. In general, the
term “site” is defined as:
• A place where something (such as a building) is, was, or will be located.
• A place where something important has happened.
• A place that is used for a particular activity. 4
In the previous definitions, a site can be understood as a location; a place that
relates to other places to form a whole fabric. This location can be described based on its
physical characteristics, and also can be linked with other locations within spatial systems
of the whole fabric. A site also means a place for activity or event. This aspect of
defining a site addresses that a site is not just the "where" of something; but also it is the
product of the integrated relationships between human and non-human, physical and
sensual, nature and culture, and past and future.
The concept of site, then, simultaneously refers to seemingly opposed ideas: a
physically specific place and a spatially and temporally expansive surround.
Incorporating three distinct geographic areas, two divergent spatial ideas, and
past, present, and future time frames, sites are complex.5
Burns and Kahn state that any physical site needs specific delimitations in order
to be controlled or owned. It also needs to be considered in reference to its surroundings
in order to be fully understood, "no particular local can be understood in isolation."6
3 "Site," Oxforddictionaries.com. Accessed September 23, 2013.
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/site?q=site.
4 "Site," Merriam-Webster.com. Accessed September 23, 2013. http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/site.
5 Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies
(New York: Routledge, 2005), xii.
6 Ibid, xii.
14
It is helpful for designers to understand how a site is defined in various disciplines
as a combination of natural phenomena and human activity. For a geographer, a site is a
certain piece of land with visual qualities or attributes that are discovered through
observation. A geologist describes a site by the nature of its material. For example,
structural geology describes the composition and structure of the rocks that show how
sites have been developed over a particular period of time. On the other hand, dynamic
geology analyzes and describes the forces that helped in shaping these layers. Historical
geology studies the sequence of events recorded in the past that led to these forms in the
present.7 In the field of ecology, ecologists study the ways in which organisms or groups
of organisms are related to the living and non-living parts of their environment.
According to Lynch and Hack, in site analysis, ecology helps to describe "the limits and
conditions of human intervention. It implies certain values, diversity, approximate
stability, conservation, but these are neither ultimate nor comprehensive."8
Burns and Kahn note that in the design discourse, a site is generally defined by its
boundaries that distinguish it from its surroundings. Although this oversimplified
understanding has an arguable basis because designers often receive a site with specific
entity, Burns and Kahn argue that this approach limits the role of designers in defining
sites, and the determination of a site does not tolerate on the design consideration, which
7 Xiaodong Li , “Meaning of the Site: A Holistic Approach Toward Site Analysis on
behalf of the Development of a Design Tool based on a Comparative Case-Study
between FengShui and Kevin Lynch's system”, (PhD diss. Universiteitsdrukkerij,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1993).
8 Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 34.
15
is not the case.9 Although the existing physical conditions have a significant impact on
the design decisions, a site is connected to other forces from different systems on
different scales. These forces, indeed, can influence the designer in his/her intervention of
a site.
In the field of landscape architecture, one of the most well-known definitions of a
site is Lynch and Hack’s definition. Lynch and Hack state that a site is "composed of
many factors- above, below, and on the ground- but these factors are interrelated."10
According to Lynch and Hack, a site is a crucial aspect of the environment. A site has
"biological, social, and psychological impact that goes far beyond its more obvious
influence on cost and technical function."11
Although the existing qualities of a site can
limit what designers can do, these qualities can open new opportunities too. Lynch and
Hack argue that the complexity of the factors of a site creates its uniqueness. Although
these factors usually do not achieve a complete harmony, they still represent some
approximate balance.
In “Transformation of the Site”, Nicholaas John Habraken defines a site as "a
space and material: form, place and understanding make the site."12
In this definition,
Habraken points out two sets of variables; the physical and the spatial. The physical
variables define a site with its physical and visual form which is one of the most obvious
9 Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies
(New York: Routledge, 2005).
10
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 30.
11
Ibid, 2.
12
Nicholaas John Habraken, Transformation of the Site (Cambridge: Awater Press,
1982), 4.
16
and remarkable attributes of a site. On the other hand, the spatial variables link a site to
the surrounding context. The key element that overlaps the two sets of variable is the
human's understanding and observation of a site.
Burns and Kahn define a site "as a dynamic relational construction."13
Design
intervention is the result of the exchange between what a designer actually sees and what
he/she wishes to have in a site, between the reality and the possibility.14
Burns and Kahn
also discuss what constitutes a site in design; they argue that the first step of the design
process starts when a designer receives a piece of land with specific boundaries. When a
designer starts to analyze a site, he/she discovers new connections that expand his/her
scope of research, and he/she starts to add more analytical layers that go beyond the
physical features of a site.
Burns and Kahn note that there are many terms that define the physical location
(such as place, property, ground, setting context, situation, and landscape), but these
terms only identify a particular region. Burns and Kahn argue that none of these terms is
"exactly equivalent" to the full understanding of a site.15
Unlike the notions of these
terms, a site is purposely based; when designers start to call a particular piece of land a
site, then the purpose of it has already been stated.
To simplify the complicated relationships that form a site, Burns and Kahn
classify three distinguished areas of a site. The first one is the area of control which
identifies the physical site within its property lines. The second one is the area of
13
Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and
Strategies (New York: Routledge, 2005).
14
Ibid.
15
Ibid.
17
influence which comprises systems and forces that affect a site even if they do not take
place within its boundaries (such as the solar system, hydrological features, and
geomorphology). The third one is the area of effect which reflects the domains beyond
the given site that are affected by design (such as the growth of a metropolitan region,
water cycles and infrastructural systems).16
In this context a site is understood at three
different levels (see figure 1). Although each level has distinguished characteristics and
implementations, they overlap and affect each other in a complementary relationship.
Figure 1: The three distinct areas of the site influenced by Burns and Kahn’s
classification.
Designers need to consider the correlations among the different systems that form
sites; the designers’ comprehensive understanding of these relations will help them to
bring the most suitable intervention to the area. In other words, a site needs to be
understood in reference to its context. Doreen Massey points out that the unique image of
a site cannot be understood unless a person sees it within a set of places, "a sense of
place, an understanding of “its character”, which can only be constructed by linking that
place to places beyond."17
Massey notes that to get this unique perspective, designers
need to read places as processes. Designers should perceive a site without boundaries, but
16
Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and
Strategies (New York: Routledge, 2005).
17
Doreen B. Massey, Space, Place and Gender (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), 156.
1. The area of control
2. The area of influence
3. The area of effect
18
multiple relations, without a single unique identity, but consisting of a multitude of
conflicts. This perspective does not deny the importance of uniqueness of place.18
To conclude, a site is a set of dynamic relations with existing qualities. The
literature review states that the term “site” cannot be precisely defined, but a whole set of
variables and factors need to be considered to draw the most comprehensive image of a
site. If each discourse discusses the notion of a site without taking into account other
considerations that are important for other discourses, they will uncritically iterate their
own conceptions of sites, which will leave a great deal of knowledge unarticulated.
What is Site Analysis?
Site analysis is a multidisciplinary term. The literature review presented in this
chapter shows that site analysis is a systematic diagnostic process that requires
knowledgeable and skilled designers to critically investigate most of the important factors
of a site. Site analysis has been approached in a wide spectrum of methods during the
past few decades. Each method reflects the designers' way of thinking about a site and the
level of information that is required to acknowledge site from their point of view.
James LaGro defines site analysis as "a diagnostic process that identifies the
opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program."19
LaGro considers site
analysis phase as a systematic process that follows a sequence of steps. These steps
include site selection, inventory, analysis, concept development, and design
implementation. According to LaGro, building sites are the smallest units in a broad
18
Doreen B. Massey, Space, Place and Gender (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994).
19
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007), 169.
19
range of spatial scales when performing site analysis (see figure 2). LaGro classifies the
contextual data sets of a site into three categories which are: physical, biological, and
cultural attributes. In his position, these three attributes form a site and need to be
considered during the analysis of any site in order to create suitable and sustainable
development.20
Figure 2: Spatial hierarchy-regions, landscapes, sites: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A
Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
In “Site, Space, and Structure” Kim W. Todd notes that the purpose of site
analysis is to "separate a whole complex image into simpler components, and understand
them in relationship to one another and to the whole.”21
Todd recommends that to make
site analysis more affective and meaningful, designers should avoid getting too much
information to begin with, and they also should avoid performing an oversimplified
20
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
21
Kim W Todd, Site, Space, and Structure (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985),
11.
20
analysis that does not give any valuable information that influence the creative decisions
of the design.22
Ian McHarg's ideas of site analysis propose deconstructing components of the
nature into a system of layers. He suggests examining, mapping, and evaluating different
aspects of a site individually and then overlapping them on top of one another.23
This
approach helps acknowledging the components of a specific natural environment (such as
geology, hydrology, vegetation cover, surface waters, and climatic conditions) within the
surrounding context. McHarg also established a value system to diagnose the data appear
to result in scientific outcomes that lead to rational decisions.
For Lynch and Hack, the main two sources for site analysis are the site itself and
the purpose that it will be used for, "site analysis has two branches, the one oriented to
our particular purpose and the other to the site itself."24
Lynch and Hack argue that these
two sources are interrelated; in most situations a site draws the limitations for the targeted
project. On the other hand, the purpose of a site can direct a designer toward a particular
approach in analyzing a site.25
Although, in many situations, a site is analyzed for fitness to a purpose, Lynch
and Hack state that designers must consider the interests of the existing occupants. Lynch
and Hack argue that on-site experience allow a designer to set realistic purposes before
22
Kim W Todd, Site, Space, and Structure (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985).
23
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969), 144.
24
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 29.
25
Ibid.
21
finishing the analysis of a site. On the other hand, it can help a designer to judge and
evaluate a site before knowing its detailed purpose.26
The site analysis approach proposed by Burns and Kahn distinguishes between
“thinking about a site” and “site thinking”; they argue that a specific context of a site
provides a designer with the base and the raw material that he/she can start with (thinking
about a site), and the ideas of a designer about a site provide a theoretical background
toward his/her action or intervention (site thinking).27
These two approaches are related
in a complementary manner. In other words, the “writing”/“editing” of a site generated
by designers are reflections of their “reading” of a site.28
In “Site Citation: The Ground for Modern Landscape Architecture”, Elizabeth
Meyer states that the qualities of a site experienced by a designer are not the framework
of the designer's creative act, but they definitely draw the starting point of it. Meyer
suggests that a site is supposed to develop its own program instead of receiving a
predefined one.29
Lynch and Hack discuss this situation noting that this occasionally
happens. A designer might be given a site to figure out the “best use” of it. According to
Lynch and Hack, this kind of analysis is more difficult than the traditional site analysis.
26
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
27
Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and
Strategies (New York: Routledge, 2005).
28
Ellen Braae and Anne Tietjen, Constructing Sites on a Large Scale: towards New
Design Methods. Nordic Journal of Architecture (Copenhagen: The Danish
Architectural Press, 2011).
29
Elizabeth Meyer, “Site Citations: The Grounds of Modern Landscape Architecture.” In
Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies, edited by Carol Burns and
Andrea Kahn, 92-129, New York: Routledge, 2005.
22
In this situation, a designer must analyze a site, or multiple sites, with more attention to
the ongoing social and ecological systems. A designer also has to examine the context of
the locality (ecology, circulation, behaviors, structures, and associated images) with equal
care.30
Comprehensively analyzing a site using this approach will draw the possibilities
of future plans, and the program will be developed from the site itself.
A choice of the best site for the “best use” can be made by evaluating and
comparing different alternatives. This comparison must balance ecology, market, and
social purpose.31
To clarify what a “program” means, Lynch and Hack define it as "the
first act of design that is built in a dialogue between the designer and the client."32
A
program is a proposed outcome and hypothesis of how a design will function when it is
occupied.
Meyer views sites as "plots are not empty canvases, but full of spaces, full of
nature and history, whose latent forms and meanings can be surfaced, and made palpable,
through design."33
From this perspective, Meyer identifies principles that are important
for site analysis: (1) site as armature or framework, (2) site as geomorphological figure;
site as ecosystem or geological fragment, and (3) and site as temporal phenomenon,
30
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid, 8.
33
Elizabeth Meyer, “Site Citations: The Grounds of Modern Landscape Architecture.” In
Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies, edited by Carol Burn and
Andrea Kahn, 92-129, New York: Routledge, 2005, 102.
23
haecceity, and subjective experience.34
These principles are crucial to acknowledge the
physical properties of sites (such as materials and structures), and the spatial properties of
sites (such as atmosphere and qualities).
In “From the Ground Up: Programming the Urban Site”, Kahn states that
traditional site analysis needs to be modified to meet the ongoing complexity of the
notion of sites. Kahn argues that the existing site analysis methods do not generate any
new knowledge about particular sites.35
In most situations, the conducted analysis re-
acknowledges what is already known; it produces inventories organized into standard
place-based categories as building typologies, usages, infrastructures, and formal urban
patterns.36
Instead of a traditional site analysis, Kahn suggests “site construction” as an
intentional method that can reveal the complex qualities of a site. Site construction breaks
with analytic objectivity and can be seen as a bodily site exploration. For Kahn,
unclassifiable aspects of a site can be grasped only through immersive practice.37
Site analysis is a multidisciplinary term that has been approached in a wide
spectrum of methods during the past few decades. This research discusses site analysis by
exploring it through different lenses (architect, landscape architect, urban planner,
historian and theorists). This will be extremely helpful to obtain the most comprehensive
image and for understanding different characters of a site.
34
Elizabeth Meyer, “Site Citations: The Grounds of Modern Landscape Architecture.” In
Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and Strategies, edited by Carol Burn and
Andrea Kahn, 92-129, New York: Routledge, 2005,102.
35
Andrea Kahn, From the Ground Up: Programming the Urban Site (The Harvard
Architecture Review, 1998).
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid.
24
Why is it Important to Analyze Sites in a Comprehensive Manner?
When a word or phrase is taken out of context, it can become meaningless, or
worse, its meaning can become distorted, even to the point of saying the opposite
of what was originally intended. This is why journalists are often heard to say
‘context is everything’. Context is no less important in the landscape.38
As discussed earlier, the notion of site is complex; it has a set of dynamic
relations with existing qualities. “Site” cannot be precisely defined, but a whole set of
variables and factors and their relations need to be considered to draw the most
comprehensive image of a site. Site analysis, as well, is a multidisciplinary term that
includes information gathered from various sources and will be applied by many
professions engaged in land development process (see figure 3).
Figure 3: Information from the site analysis is utilized by many professions engaged in
the land development process: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to
Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
38
Thompson Waterman, The Fundamentals of Landscape Architecture (Fairchild Books,
2009), 50.
25
Landscape architects in particular benefit from critically analyzing sites; their
understanding of the specific connections between landscape and social, cultural,
environmental, and political structures is crucial to the success of their projects. The
ultimate goal of a comprehensive site analysis approach is to create designs that naturally,
environmentally, culturally, and socially fit in the existing context.
This research uses the term “reading sites” to distinguish between traditional site
analysis and the targeted comprehensive site analysis. So what does “read” mean? The
origin of the term “read” is from old English rǣdan, of Germanic origin; related to
Dutch raden and German raten 'advise, guess'. Early senses included 'advise' and
'interpret (a riddle or dream). The term “read” first known use was before the 12th
century39
; it is a very common term that can be understood and used by most people.40
It
has different definitions, but the ones that meet the research requirements are:
Look at and comprehend the meaning of (written or printed matter) by mentally
interpreting the characters or symbols of which it is composed.
Discover (information) by reading it in a written or printed source.
Understand or interpret the nature or significance of something.41
To understand a site in a comprehensive manner, designers must look and
comprehend the meanings and the underlying values of a site. They also must discover
the information that is visible and invisible, and then critically understand them to obtain
39
"Read." Merriam-Webster.com. Accessed September 23, 2013. http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/read.
40
See appendix A.
41
"Read," Oxforddictionaries.com. Accessed September 23, 2013.
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/read?q=read.
26
the most comprehensive image of a site, "to comprehend site requires many horizons of
understanding- historical, philosophical, rhetorical, legal; analytic, formal, descriptive,
aesthetic; strategic, tactical; social, economic, political."42
Each site has a unique set of historical, natural, and cultural values that can
influence a designer about how a site should be evaluated. According to Christophe Girot
in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture”, each piece of information
gathered in the site analysis phase can influence design decisions “different discoveries
imply different actions.”43
A designer understands a site by overlaying different
analytical layers and recognizing the visible and the invisible forces. In this context,
designers should go beyond the tangible forces; tangible forces provide designers with a
partial image that does not reflect what is in a site and how it should be transformed. On
the other hand, sites have problems and issues that are highly interrelated. In many
situations, the solution for one issue requires designers to solve other site's issues. Few, if
any, issues can be treated effectively in isolation from other site's issues.
The most obvious benefits of a comprehensive approach in site analysis are the
technical ones. According to LaGro, site analysis summarizes the suitability of a site for
the programmed uses. Different physical, biological, and cultural attributes can influence
the suitability of a site for the project under consideration. LaGro states that the careful
analysis of sites and its context can lead to higher-quality built environments. If the
existing conditions of a site are poorly understood, the development for this site can
42
Carol Burns and Andrea Kahn, Site Matters: Design Concepts, Histories, and
Strategies (New York: Routledge, 2005), xxiv.
43
Christopher Girot, The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York:
Princeton Architectural Press, 1999), 63.
27
result in negative environmental, social, and economic impacts.44
LaGro also argues that
a context-sensitive approach that aims at sustainable planning and development will help
protect public health, safety, and welfare. Acknowledging different issues of a site can
help in avoiding inherent site problems. On the other hand, LaGro states that a designer
can use the existing valuable qualities, materials and other components of a site in his/her
future project. The usage of these components will reduce long-term maintenance costs,
and the risks to life and property from natural hazards.45
LaGro notes that some inherent physiographic constraints (such as steep slopes,
shallow bedrock, water, and wetlands) in a site might make it unsuitable for development
(see table 2.1). Other sites (or parts of a site) might be suitable for development but
relatively inaccessible. Lack of access can be because of intervening constraints.
According to LaGro, extending roads and utilities to isolated site areas might be
unbeneficial and unauthorized; pockets of undevelopable land can render the original
program unfeasible. LaGro states that site analysis can uncover site constraints that might
lead to revising a project’s program (see figure 4).
Accurate information from reading the physical features of any site leads to more
suitable projects. This information is gathered based on the design program or the site
itself and includes, but are not limited to, topography, hydrology, climate, and soil.
Climate, for example, is a very critical attribute that a designer must give deep attention
during site analysis. Climate conditions (such as precipitation, air temperature, solar
incidence, wind direction, and wind speed) vary annually, seasonally, and daily. A good
44
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
45
Ibid.
28
reading of a site's microclimate can help a designer in anticipating future conditions and
develops new solutions for these conditions. A designer can also orient his/her design
concept based on the site analysis findings; these findings give the designer a rational
scientific base for spatial organization and orientation of buildings, structures, and
outdoor spaces. These informed decisions can significantly reduce energy consumption
for heating and cooling buildings and create more pleasant environments.
Table 2.1: Selected development constraints: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A
Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
Constraint Examples
Ecological infrastructure Aquifer recharge areas, wetlands, surface water,
critical wildlife habitat
Health or safety hazards Floodplains, earthquake fault zones, areas susceptible
to landslides
Physiographic barriers Steep slopes, highly erodible soils, shallow bedrock
Natural resources
Prime farmland, sand and gravel deposits, specimen
trees, scenic views
Historic resources Historic buildings, archaeological sites
Legal restrictions
Zoning codes, subdivision ordinances, easements,
deed restrictions
Nuisances Noises, odors, unsightly views
Another critical technical consideration, according to LaGro, is ecology.
Ecological considerations include, but are not limited to, the habitat, exotic species,
wetlands, and wildlife. LaGro notes that human activities (such as agriculture, forestry,
and urban development) have negatively changed the structure and ecological function of
many of the landscapes in Europe. LaGro refers that to the continuing change in land uses
which destroyed some habitats, and also fragment and functionally disconnect others.
29
During the reading of a site, designers need to be cautious about the impact of his/her
design interventions on the surrounding environment, "protecting existing native
vegetation and wildlife is not only good for the environment, but it also contributes to the
unique sense of place of a site."46
Figure 4: Constraints and opportunities may be on-site or off-site attributes that shape
development suitability patterns and influence the spatial organization of program
elements on the site: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to
Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
Besides the technical considerations of sites (such as topography, climate,
hydrology, and soils), designers must be aware of how a site is socially and culturally
46
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007), 138.
30
constructed. It is important for them to understand the underlying values of sites;
acknowledging and evaluating a site's values can contribute to the success of the project.
Community development, for example, must aim at enhancing people's life. This
can be achieved by engaging people's value systems in driving the process of change.
Sites feature a multiple of interests. Conflicts between underlying goals and values must
be precisely understood and reflected through design decisions. Xavier de Souza Briggs
recommends that designers should consider the interactive systems that form
communities. Briggs also argues that designers can play a significant role in bridging the
gap between stakeholders and community members. To be capable of fulfilling this
position, designers have to comprehend and acknowledge people's values, needs and
expectations.47
Briggs addresses the existing conflict between community social values and
industry which generally faces community development. Briggs also states that designers
should be knowledgeable about different value systems; assessing community values and
their conflicts will give them a solid base that they can refer to.
As part social movement and part industry, community development will continue
to face dilemmas about core goals and values. But being more explicit about the
range of values that motivate the work, and recognizing values and value conflicts
for what they are, is a key place to start.48
According to Lynch and Hack, some of the people who will be affected by the
new development might be absent, uninformed, or voiceless. A designer has the
responsibility to speak for the values of the absence users, needs, and expectations. It is
47
Xavier de Souza Briggs. Rethinking Community Development: Managing Dilemmas
about Goals and Values (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007), accessed
February 2, 2014. http://web.mit.edu/workingsmarter/media/pdf-ws-kia-brief-0701.pdf.
48 Ibid, 30.
31
very useful that a designer observes and interacts directly with the actual users of the new
site. This approach can help a designer to predict how these users will act in the new
configuration. Lynch and Hack note that engaging the actual users of a site in the design
of the new plans is one of the most effective strategies in creating successful design.49
Culture, as well, is one of the most critical attributes that can directly affect the
suitability of any project. Cultural influences provide designers with rich resources in
designing projects. These influences can lead to more suitable designs that fit
harmoniously in the existing context. In “Primitive Culture”, Edward B. Tylor defines
culture as a "complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."50
This
definition states a rich spectrum of knowledge related to culture. Understanding the
cultural roots in a certain community will help designers to get answers, ideas, and
solutions that can improve design interventions and make projects harmoniously fit in the
urban fabric.
Social studies also take a place in the site analysis phase; the understanding of
demographics, income level and ethnicity play a significant role in the formation of any
site. A comprehensive reading of a site can evolve the awareness and appreciation of a
designer to the social values and considerations. Crime rate, for example, one of the
social characters that reflects a certain perception about any site, neighborhood or
community. Designers can play a critical role in decreasing crime rate through their
designs and approaches. First, designers need to analyze the factors that contribute to this
49
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
50
Edward B Tylor, Primitive Culture (New York: Gordon Press Publishers, 1973), 1.
32
phenomenon, and then they need to change this phenomenon and minimize the impacts
of these factors by their design ideas and spatial organization. For instance, they should
emphasize the significant role of citizens in the community to assist in establishing and
maintaining public safety. A community-oriented design, for example, encourages
citizens' involvement and acceptance of responsibility.
All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single premise: that the individual is a
member of a community of interdependent parts. His instincts prompt him to
compete for his place in that community, but his ethics prompt him also to co-
operate.51
This research discusses site analysis by exploring it through different lenses
(architect, landscape architect, urban planner, historian and theorists). Discussing this
approach from the perspective of a landscape architect can benefit other disciplines
engaged in the design process; landscape architecture occupies the middle ground
between different disciplines and professions. Landscape architecture touches history,
culture, literature, ecology, and more. Landscape architecture is concerned about
affecting human perception and behaviors. The profession of landscape architecture aims
at creating, enhancing, maintaining, and protecting places in order to be functional,
aesthetically pleasing, meaningful, sustainable, and to meet human needs and
expectations.
Summary
This chapter addressed that the notion of “site” has been studied using various
approaches; the technical, the social, the anthropological, the ecological, and the
symbolic approach. The review of the related literature shows that although there are
51
Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac, the Land Ethic (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1966), 239.
33
many significant methods that influence the research of designers in different fields, no
single method gives a comprehensive understanding of the site. Each method has
developed a discourse which is oriented toward highlighting one perspective of
understanding the site and eliminates or underestimates the others.
This chapter also argued that although the term “site” cannot be precisely defined,
a whole set of variables and factors and their relationships need to be considered to draw
the most comprehensive image of a site. If each discourse discusses the notion of a site
without taking into account other considerations of different discourses, they will
uncritically iterate their own conceptions of sites which will leave a great deal of
knowledge unarticulated.
You must start right from the beginning, letting your new buildings grow from the
daily lives of the people who will live in them, shaping the houses to the measure
of the people's songs, weaving the pattern of a village as if on the village looms,
mindful of the trees and the crops that will grow there, respectful to the skyline
and humble before the seasons. There must be neither faked tradition nor faked
modernity, but an architecture that will be the visible and permanent.52
This chapter also noted that site analysis is a multidisciplinary term that includes
information gathered from various sources and will be applied by many professions
engaged in the land development process. Site analysis has been approached in a wide
spectrum of methods during the past few decades. Discussing site analysis by exploring it
through different lenses (architect, landscape architect, urban planner, historian and
theoretical) is helpful to obtain the most comprehensive image and understanding the
characteristics of a site.
52
Hassan Fathy, Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in Rural Egypt (University of
Chicago Press, 2000), 45.
34
This chapter also found that, in the context of the site analysis, it is
understandable that a comprehensive site analysis vary from one site to another, from one
purpose to another, and from one person to another. Topics that are needed to be
addressed during a comprehensive site analysis will be generated by a site itself, the
purpose for this analysis, and by the set of values and meaning inherent by the individual
experience of the investigator.
Although the technical considerations of sites are fundamental, designers must
also be aware of how a site is socially and culturally constructed. It is important for them
to understand the underlying values of sites; acknowledging and evaluating site's values
can contribute to the success of the project. Chapter Three discusses how site analysis is
approached in the most prevalent methods of site analysis to demonstrate an
understanding of these methods to be able to discover what is missing in each method
and their inherent biases.
35
CHAPTER III
METHODS OF SITE ANALYSIS
The information provided in the preceding chapters demonstrates that there are
many significant methods in site analysis that influence the theoretical and practical
experience and knowledge in different fields. Kahn argues that the existing site analysis
methods do not generate any new knowledge about particular sites.1 In most situations,
the conducting analysis re-acknowledges what is already known; it produces inventories
organized into standard place-based categories as building typologies, usages,
infrastructures, and formal urban patterns.2 This chapter examines different methods used
in analyzing sites over the past few decades. The presented methods are the most
prevalent in the design profession. On the other hand, the proponents of these methods
are from various disciplines; architects, landscape architects, planners, educators,
researchers and theorists. Since this thesis is more oriented toward the teaching of site
analysis rather than professional practice; having multiple lenses in analyzing a site
allows exploring it from different perspectives and different angles. It also gives students
a wide spectrum of tools and vocabulary that allows them navigate their own value
system, and in some situations, to create a hybrid by overlaying these methods to get the
most useful tools of them to achieve the most comprehensive reading of a site.
The methods to be discussed in this chapter are: the Technical Method by Kevin
Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-
Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro, and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus
1 Andrea Kahn, From the Ground Up: Programming the Urban Site (The Harvard
Architecture Review, 1998).
2 Ibid.
36
and Richard Haag. The sequence followed for discussing these methods is a reflection of
the degree of how each method is prescribed. This research will start with the Technical
Method (the most direct method), and will end with the Experiential Method (the most
experiential and flexible one).
The Proponents of the Selected Methods
The proponents of the selected methods have contributed in shaping the design
profession during the past several decades. Their ideas still influence designers’ today.
Kevin Andrew Lynch was an American urban planner and author. He received a
Bachelor's degree in city planning in 1947. Lynch began lecturing at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1948 and became a full professor in 1963. Lynch
consulted for many cities in the United States and abroad on projects such as Boston's
Government Center and Waterfront Park. Lynch influences the field of city planning
through his work on the theory of city form, and on the perception of the city
environment and its consequences for city design.3
Gary Hack is an architect and planner. He teaches and practices planning and
urban design. He received a Bachelor's degree and a Master's degree in architecture, and
a Master's degree in planning. Hack is the former dean of the School of Design at The
University Pennsylvania. He has prepared plans for over thirty cities in the United States
and abroad such as the redevelopment plan for the Prudential Center in Boston.4
3 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Institute Archives and Special Collections,
accessed on February 19, 2014.
http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/research/collections/collections-mc/mc208.html.
4 University of Pennsylvania, School of Design, accessed on February 19, 2014.
http://www.design.upenn.edu/people/hack_gary.
37
Ian McHarg5, who was born in Scotland, is a landscape architect, urban planner,
and a writer. He remains one of the most influential pioneers of the environmental
movement. McHarg received a Bachelor's degree and a Master's degree in both landscape
architecture and city planning from Harvard University. He was responsible for the
creation of the Department of landscape architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in
1960. In 1969, McHarg published Design with Nature, "a finalist for the National Book
Award and a book that led to fundamental changes in the teaching and practice of
landscape architecture.”6
James A. LaGro is an American landscape architect. He received a Master's
degree from Cornell University in landscape architecture in 1982, and a PhD in natural
resources policy and planning in 1991. LaGro was the chair of the Department of Urban
and Regional Planning at University of Wisconsin-Madison from 2002-2008. His recent
book: “Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Site Planning and Design”
was ranked as one of the top planning books in 2008.
Bernard Lassus is a French landscape architect. He was a professor at the Higher
National School of Beaux Arts (ENSBA) in 1968. He partnered with Bernard Teyssèdre
in founding the first Department for Teaching and Research in the Plastic Arts at the
Université of Paris 1 at the Sorbonne. Lassus was also involved, from 1976 to 1985, in
5 For more information refer to: Lynn Miller and Sidonio Pardal, The Classic McHarg:
an Interview (Lisbon: CESUR, Technical University of Lisbon, 1992).
6 Anne Whiston Spirn, “Ian McHarg, Landscape Architecture, and Environmentalism:
Ideas and Methods in Context,” in Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, edited
by Michel Conan, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and
Collection, 2000, 97.
38
the creation of the Landscape School at Versailles where he was the director of the
Workshop Charles Rivière Dufresny.7
Richard Haag is an American landscape architect. He received his Bachelor's
degree and a Master's degree in landscape architecture. In 1958, Haag joined the
University of Washington faculty in Seattle, Washington, and in 1964, he founded the
landscape architecture design program at the university. The work of Haag is
internationally recognized for its creativity, sensitivity to the natural environment, and
adaptive re-use of existing structures and facilities.8
All of the proponents of the selected methods are well-known designers from
different disciplines. They had remarkable impact on the design profession. These
authors also have participated in founding many of landscape architecture programs; they
are educators, authors and practitioners. Their methods are taught in many of design
schools in the United States and other regions over the world.
The Technical Method
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack
The Technical Method relies on the relationship between the natural categories of
a “site” and the social categories of a “user”. According to the Journal of Architectural
Education, Lynch and Hack's methodology in site analysis, presented in their book “Site
Planning”, has remained the only comprehensive source of information and recognized
system for over two decades that deals with all of the principal activities and concerns of
7 For more information visit Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection website:
http://www.doaks.org.
8 For more information, visit Richard Haag Association website.
39
arranging the outdoor physical environment.9 Lynch and Hack note that their method is
imported from other disciplines, "since this is an introduction to an old and well-
developed art, there is not much here that is original. These ideas come from many
sources and have been so condensed, reordered, and interpreted that they can hardly be
attributed to any single origin."10
As discussed before, Lynch and Hack define a site as "composed of many factors-
above, below, and on the ground-but these factors are interrelated."11
According to Lynch
and Hack, a site is a crucial aspect of the environment. A site has biological, social, and
psychological influences that are as important as the influence on cost and technical
function. Although the existing qualities of a site can limit what people can do, these
qualities can open new opportunities for them too. Lynch and Hack argue that the
complexity of the site's factors creates its uniqueness. Although these factors unusually
achieve the complete harmony, they still represent some approximate balance.
Site analysis, for Lynch and Hack, "is a basis for conservation and also a prelude
to successful revolution."12
Lynch and Hack's site analysis method focuses on the purely
formal, visual, and the aesthetic qualities of landscape. For Lynch and Hack, the realistic
projection of visual elements leads to create a grounded methodology that represents the
living environment as its users perceive it "to reconstruct their cognitive maps."13
They
9 Journal of Architectural Education: review of second edition of Site Planning, 1990.
10 Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), vi.
11
Ibid, vi.
12
Ibid, 32.
13
Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaiver, Paper on "Thinking in Forms as well as
40
consider the "image" and "cognitive mapping" as the main categories that develop a
successful "user-based" design methodology.
In the Technical method of site analysis, Lynch and Hack use simple vocabularies
(such as “site”, “user”, “place”, “climate”) which make their approach accessible for the
majority of users (students, architects, planners, ecologists... etc.). This accessible
approach invites different community members to participate in the developmental
process. Lynch and Hack's method can be understood publicly in a direct and non-
symbolic approach, and therefore unambiguous and unguarded terms.14
Lynch and Hack start the site analysis process with basic questions that identify
what the problem is: "For whom is the place being made? For what purpose? Who will
decide what the form is to be? What resources can be used? What type of solution is
expected? In what location will it be built?"15
They point out that by defining those
problems and providing possible solutions, a designer will create the base for the entire
process of site planning. They tend to transform complex problems into simple
appositions, theoretical problems into empirical issues, and social problems into technical
ones.16
Words." Kevin Lynch and the Cognitive Theory of the city. As cited in: Xiaodong Li,
“Meaning of the Site: A Holistic Approach toward Site Analysis on behalf of the
Development of a Design Tool Based on a Comparative Case-Study between FengShui
and Kevin Lynch's System”, (PhD diss. Universiteitsdrukkerij, Eindhoven,
The Netherlands, 1993).
14
Ibid.
15
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 3.
16
Ibid.
41
For Lynch and Hack, the main two sources for site analysis are the site itself and
the purpose that it will be used for, "site analysis has two branches, the one oriented to
our particular purpose and the other to the site itself."17
They argue that these two sources
are highly interrelated; in most situations, a site draws the limitations for the targeted
project. On the other hand, the purpose of a site can direct a designer toward a particular
approach and techniques in analyzing it. For Lynch and Hack, although sites are analyzed
for fitness of purpose, designers must consider existing occupants of sites and their
interests. Lynch and Hack argue that on-site experience allows designers to set realistic
purposes before finishing the analysis of a site. On the other hand, on-site experience can
help designers judge and evaluate sites before knowing the detailed purpose that a site
will serve.
Lynch and Hack point at the complexity of the nature of a site "the conditions
below ground, the surface form, activity and life, the structures and utilities, the ocean of
light and air that overlaps them, and the human meaning, rights and regulations."18
A
designer navigates between site data to organize them within a pattern that can support
and fit his/her design. Lynch and Hack argue that a convincing site pattern can only be
achieved by repeated analysis and trial of possibilities.19
The site analysis phase, for Lynch and Hack, branches into site analysis and user
analysis. Lynch and Hack's site analysis method relies on the relation between the
physical categories of the “site” and the social categories of the “user”. The “site” and the
17
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 29.
18
Ibid.
19
Ibid.
42
“user” are the central topics of their approach. The term “site” includes ecology, soil,
water table, landform, contour; climate, and orientation. On the other hand, the term
“user” includes: future users, clients, designers...etc. Lynch and Hack analyze sites by
emphasizing both as main objects. Their approach creates a balance between the interests
of different disciplines (architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, and
engineering). Briefly, this research will discuss Lynch and Hack's method with its two
branches; site analysis and user analysis, and also the techniques that this method
proposes.
Site Analysis
Analyzing the natural categories of a site should lead to a comprehensive
understanding to the ecological and the behavioral systems. According to Lynch and
Hack, although it is hard to create a site that is completely mature and harmonious with
nature, designers must achieve some approximate balance between the ecological and the
behavioral systems.20
In some situations, site development may lead to negative effects to
a whole chain of living habitat. On the other hand, other designs can create new
connections and develop deeper meanings. Understanding how these components work
and interact with each other will create a scientific knowledge that can help designers
make informed decisions about future development.
Lynch and Hack's methodology in site analysis has a systematic outline. They
recommend designers follow these steps: (1) site visit (2) site history analysis (3)
preparing schedule for the required data (4) systematic survey (5) data synthesis (6) site
selection (7) best use (8) performance and relevance of data.
20
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
43
Site Visit. Due to the complexity of the picture of any site, Lynch and Hack note
that on-site exploration will help a designer recognize the main characters of a site, and
also to draw a mental image which can be used in the following steps of site analysis.
They also propose that a designer should study a site without knowing the targeted
purpose of it. According to Lynch and Hack, this approach of analysis will introduce
information and clues that are not expected, and also will avoid missing some important
data. Lynch and Hack also suggest that a designer should visit a site during different
occasions and varied circumstances of weather, light, and activity. This can generate
more accurate and useful information. According to Lunch and Hack, site visits are
useful when discussing preferences about places that are not established yet.
Site History Analysis. Lynch and Hack note that the understanding of site history,
ecology and image is always fundamental during site analysis phase. Designers must
investigate site's natural evolution, its former use and association. Designers should also
research the site’s image in the mind of its users and decision makers. It is useful for a
designer to understand how these participants think and feel about a site, how they
characterize it and what they expect it to be.
Preparing a Schedule for the Required Data. A designer precedes the site analysis
with a systematic collection of data. Lynch and Hack recommend designers, at the early
stage of the project, generate a list of the data required. This list should be short and it
will automatically develop with the progression of the site analysis. Lynch and Hack note
that this list differs from one site to another based on the purpose of the development, the
nature of the site and the resources available to make the survey. According to Lynch and
Hack, this list should aim at acknowledging the impact (negative and positive) of these
44
factors (specially the environmental impacts) on the site itself and the neighboring sites
and users. This list should investigate:
1. General site context,
2. Physical data, site and adjacent land,
3. Cultural data, site and adjacent land, and
4. Correlation of data.21
Systematic Survey. After visiting a site and taking an initial image about it, a
designer can start a systematic and detailed survey. In this stage, according to Lynch and
Hack, the survey is directed by the purpose that is meant to achieve the desired future
image. Lynch and Hack note that each site is unique in some way. Although some
information (such as topographic base maps, climate data, mapping of activity or
circulation) is always required for every site, other information is required only for
specific sites. Lynch and Hack argue that designers should not gather too much data at
the first stages of site analysis, "information is expensive to gather and expansive to
use."22
Starting with a short list of the required information will save time, effort, and
money.
Data Synthesis. At this stage, information gathered from the systematic survey
must be presented in a readable form (graphic and written). This representation should
reflect the essential of the site's nature and how it will be developed (such as major
constrain, problems, and potentials).
21
Refer to Appendix G in Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack Site Planning, 420-425.
22
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 63.
45
Site Selection. In some situations, a designer will be given certain objectives from
a client, and based on his/her analysis for multiple sites, the program will be developed.
According to Lynch and Hack, this type of analysis is more difficult than the traditional
site analysis; a designer must analyze different sites with more attention to the ongoing
social and ecological systems. A designer has also to examine the context of the locality
(ecology, circulation, behaviors, structures, and associated images) with equal care.
Comprehensively analyzing a site in this approach will develop the possibilities of future
plans.
Best Use. A choice can be made by evaluating and comparing different
alternatives. This comparison must balance ecology, market, and social purpose.23
At this
stage, a designer will provide the client with a comparative analysis, for each alternative,
that includes sketch layout, market analysis, and schedulable of estimated cost and
benefits. A designer is responsible to advise the client about which site can achieve the
targeted purpose more successfully.
Performance and Relevance of Data. Lynch and Hack note that site analysis, in
general, is generated for a particular purpose, but the analysis loses its benefits once a
development has been carried through.24
According to Lynch and Hack, site analysis is
not self-contained. This phase generates the first thoughts about the design. Site analysis
should be a continuing process, and information from site analysis should also be well
organized. Some of the previous information will be used through different phases of the
design and the developmental process. On the other hand, other information (such as a
23
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
24
Ibid
46
shifting market, ecology in transition, or a fluctuating behavior setting) can be critical to
the performance of future development. Lunch and Hack recommend that designers have
a framework that accepts and correlates changing data.25
User Analysis
According to Lunch and Hack, the main goal of site planning and, indeed, any
other design, is to fit the human needs and actions.26
Designers must understand how
site's users will interact and value transformed sites. Lynch and Hack define “users” as:
"all those who interact with the place in any way: live in it, work in it, pass through it,
repair it, control it, profit from it, suffer from it, and even dream about it."27
The
complexity that the term “user” reflects requires designers to consider different values
and considerations. Designers should find solutions that will satisfy divers and conflicting
requirements.
In many situations, future users do not have a direct voice in the developmental
process (because they are absence, voiceless, or unknown). A designer has the
responsibility to speak for these absence users' values, needs, and expectations. A
designer must have a deep understanding of the current and prospective users of the site.
Demographic analysis is the first step that investigates who will use a site and
how they are distributed among what classes of people.28
According to Lynch and Hack,
if users differ in culture and socioeconomic classes, designers should expect significant
25
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid, 67.
28
Ibid, 69.
47
differences in how these users will interact and respond to the site. They also note that
other differences may appear among people of different age, gender, personal history, life
style or ethnicity. The reaction generated by users toward a site will also vary if they own
or not, use it frequently or occasionally, or they depend on the site for their livelihood.29
Lynch and Hack point at the complexity of this variation within a large scale
project. In this case, the designer might not have the time or the resources to investigate
all the classes within a site. It will be also difficult to manage the political conflict
between these classes. Lynch and Hack argue that a designer, in this situation, will be
forced to choose certain classes of users to whose requirements he/she most closely
attend, but also he/she should keep in mind to provide the minimum requirements of
other groups. The designer's decision will be technical based on his/her past experience
from other projects. According to Lynch and Hack, this decision also will be influenced
by the political and ethical forces.30
User analysis, in Lynch and Hack's method, has five basic criteria: (1) habitability
or vital support of the place, (2) sense, (3) fit, (4) access, and (5) control. According to
Lynch and Hack, These criteria are the constant objectives that any design should aim at.
Although some detailed specifications might vary from a site to another, the basic
considerations are constant.31
Habitability or Vital Support of the Place. According to Lynch and Hack, any
environment might be judged based on its ability to support human vital function and
29
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
30
Ibid.
31
Ibid.
48
his/her body capability. Although the client might be concerned with just the minimal
standards of sensation and structural safety, a designer should carefully investigate
different qualities of a site (such as diseases, air pollution, noise, poor climate, glare, dust,
accidents, contaminated water, toxic waste, or unnecessary stress), and discover
biological and social threats that might affect a site and its users in the future.
Sense. When a place fit the human body structure and the way in which his mind
works, Lynch and Hack describe this criterion as "the sense of a place". This criterion
varies from a site to another based on the culture and personal experience. Lynch and
Hack argue that there are regularities in how users perceive a place based on the structure
of their senses and their brains. According to Lynch and Hack, places should have clear
perceptual identity that is recognizable, memorable, vivid, and engaging users'
attention.32
These sensuous characteristics are essential to achieve emotional security and
a sense of self. Designers must understand the meanings and the values of a site to
emphasize the identity of the users of this site. Designers need to carefully analyze the
function, the social structure, economic and political patterns, and human values in order
to create meaningful places.
Fit. While “sense” is related to human values and meanings, “fit” is related to
human activities. During site analysis, a designer should investigates users' activities and
consider behavioral issues. Lynch and Hack state some questions that can help the
designer to understand any site in this context and make a good fit with user actions; "is
there space to carry out that action? Is the site equipped and managed for it? Does the
setting reinforce its mood and structure? Is there other room to pile the snow, enough
32
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
49
light to see by?"33
A designer must know what people actually do and what their
experiences and expectations are. Lynch and Hack recommend designers rely on a
systematic study of behavior, or even to invite users of the site to participate in the
decision process.34
Access. Lynch and Hack define access as "the degree to which users can reach
other persons, services, resources, information and places."35
Based on user analysis, a
designer must pay attention to various groups of users that will access a site, and he/she
needs to investigate what are the considerations of site users and their preferences. New
design can encourage communication or decrease it (in order to decrease the sense of
safety, privacy and the prevention of conflictions).
Control. Lynch and Hack argue that, in ideal situations, a site should be controlled
by its users. However, this is not the case in the real environment due the reality of power
pattern and the absence of these users.36
Designers can encourage responsible control by
the users of a site through designs. In order to do that, designers must understand existing
conditions of the actual distribution of social and economic power.37
Techniques of Analysis
Lynch and Hack's approach provides different techniques that designers can use
while investigating sites. Lynch and hack classified these methods into four groups based
33
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 74.
34
Ibid.
35
Ibid, 75.
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid.
50
on their approach and applications: (1) indirect observation, (2) direct observation, (3)
direct communication, and (4) participant analysis. Lynch and Hack note that each
method of site analysis has its particular cost and benefits. Based on the context, each of
them can be relevant or irrelevant, practical or impractical and each of them inherent its
own problems with ethics and power.
Indirect Observation. In this method of analysis, a designer can use some record
of past behavior to explain the present and predict the future.38
According to Lynch and
Hack, this method is simple, economic, and easy to control, but also extracting the
implications of the data can be difficult too. This method is usually used if the design
center is distant, the user is unknown, or the time and the budget does not allow for direct
investigations.39
Many resources are available for the indirect observation; past choices,
precedents, archives, content analysis, traces, and formal studies.
The indirect observation method contains a whole set of techniques that can help
designers investigate a site. These techniques include: analyzing past choices, precedent
studies, archives, content analysis (such as newspapers, radio, televisions... etc.), traces
(such as worn steps, oaths in the dirt, streaks and scratches on walls, symbol displayed...
etc.), and formal studies.
Direct Observation. Lynch and Hack consider this method as one of the richest
sources for objective information during site analysis.40
Data is gathered on a site from
existing users. Data can be visual behavior or speech which can be recorded and
38
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
39
Ibid, 80.
40
Ibid.
51
documented using voice recorder, camera or even notebook. According to Lynch and
Hack, behaviorists consider this method to be the only reliable source of data. The two
main limitations of this approach are: first, it contains a massive amount of data including
irrelevant ones which make analyzing date tedious and may not lead to solid knowledge.
Second, it does not give information about the "inner experience: the feelings, the
images, attitudes, and values that accompany and motivate overt behavior and give it
human character."41
Lynch and Hack advise designers to study sites in "two-pronged"
ways which are direct observation and behavioral observation. They argue that when
these two approaches are combined they will generate more reliable data that can explain
how a site is functioning.42
Direct observation reveals information by analyzing different
characteristics such as behavior setting, movement pattern, behavior circus, selected
behavior and experiments.
Direct Communication. Lynch and Hack consider direct communication with the
users of a site as one of the most important source of data; it is not only analyzing what
people do, but also how they feel, conceive, and what they value. Although some
respondents may, consciously and unconsciously, hide certain things, highlight others,
and refine their memories to accord with proper attitude, this method remains one of the
most reliable and richest sources of information.43
In most situations, it is hard to interview all the users of a site, but there are some
statistical considerations in choosing the sample depending on the purpose of the
41
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 84.
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid.
52
research. The research might be a quantitative research that targets a wide array of
people, and this method is effective once the issues are clearly identified. On the other
hand, a qualitative research, which can be done on a relatively small group, can conduct a
in-depth interviews that focus on crucial items that need to be explained in a
comprehensive manner.
According to Lynch and Hack, descriptions of the daily life are relatively
accurate. Unlike the visual observations, interviews are centered on users and the purpose
of the project. Some surveys ask the respondents to identify the problems they have with
their environment and also to identify the good qualities of it. Respondents might be
asked to respond graphically or verbally. They might be asked to draw some images to
describe some places or actions. According to Lunch and Hack, although these drawings
might be simple and unprofessional, they can reveal a great deal of information44
(see
figure 5).
Respondents might be asked to describe their personal memories with the
surrounding environment. According to Lynch and Hack, personal memories are rich of
information, "early experience shapes present values."45
Lynch and Hack note that there
is evidence that many people wish to replicate the setting of their childhood. Such
memories need to be used with caution because they are “simplified idealizations”.
44
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
45
Ibid, 97.
53
Figure 5: A sketch of a neighborhood street by a resident of San Francisco: Kevin Lynch
and Gary Hack, Site Planning, 1984.
Participant Analysis. In this method, an investigator lives with a certain group and
tries to make himself/herself as much a part of their community. This approach is called
the “Participant Observation”. According to Lynch and Hack, this approach helps a
designer to understand "the underlying, inarticulate system of belief, the latent function
and the hidden agendas."46
Lynch and Hack note that this approach can be tricky; the
designer will be insider and stranger at the same time. Although he/she shares intimacies
with community members, he/she collects information that will be used by strangers. A
designer might lose trust with the community members.47
Another inside observation of a site is the “self-observation”. In this approach,
existing users of the environment will be trained to apply the observational techniques
46
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984), 100.
47
Ibid.
54
themselves. They will be in charge in analyzing their environment and configuring their
surroundings. According to Lynch and Hack, self-analysis is a new way of studying the
relations between people and place. This approach helps avoiding many political and
ethical considerations, and also encourages more participatory approach in design.48
Other techniques can be applied in investigating sites. The choice of what the
appropriate method to use, according to Lynch and Hack, is related to the nature of sites
and users. They note that each method of site analysis has its particular cost and benefits.
Based on the context, each method can be relevant or irrelevant, practical or impractical
and each of them inherits its own problems with ethics and power.49
The Scientific Systematic Method
Ian McHarg
The Scientific Systematic Method is based on deconstructing the components of
the environment into analytical layers to reduce the complexity of their relations. This
approach allows designers to see each component (such as geology, hydrology,
vegetation cover, surface waters, climatic conditions, etc.) as individual to investigate its
characteristics. It also allows designers to investigate these components as connected
parts of the whole system to understand their relations with each other. McHarg suggests
measuring, mapping, monitoring and modeling major factors of a local with different
lenses and by different specialists.50
This wide range of knowledge will allow designers
to gain better understanding of how these components work. McHarg's method proposes
48
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
49
Ibid.
50
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969).
55
an integration of ecological knowledge into urban planning to emphasize the
environmental awareness approach to land use.
McHarg's method of site analysis reflects a scientific understanding of natural
processes. He argues that his method is rational and explicit that leads to scientific
conclusions. McHarg states that the scientific understanding of natural processes can help
designers navigate between different alternatives to effectively choose the most suitable
plan for future development.51
McHarg argues that his scientific method of site analysis
transforms site components into systems that interact with each other to create the urban
fabric, "such is the method- a simple sequential examination of the place in order to
understand it. This understanding reveals the place as an interacting system, a storehouse
and a value system."52
McHarg's main argument in his method is that "nature is a process that is
interacting, that it responds to laws, representing values and opportunities for human use
with certain limitations and even prohibitions to certain of these."53
Natural processes can
be interpreted into a value system, and these values can be measured and weighted so
they will have a rational response to a social value system. McHarg's method aims at
incorporating resource values, social values, and esthetic values in addition to the normal
engineering cogenerations about the physiographic criteria, "the best route is the one that
provides the maximum social benefit at the least social cost."54
51
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969).
52
Ibid, 151.
53
Ibid.
54
Ibid, 32.
56
McHarg proposes a guideline for site analysis that can be applied to different
projects with different scales and regions. This guideline has a systematic sequence that
proposes a rational understanding; (1) identify, (2) rank, (3) map, and (4) evaluate. To
clarify this method, let us use the process of selecting highway routes as McHarg
describes it.
First, a designer should identify the area of concern, and the major physical,
natural, and social processes. Traditional physiographic factors that are usually identified
are: slope, surface drainage, soil drainage, bedrock foundation, soil foundation, and
erosive capacity. Natural categories that should be identified are: water values, forest
values, tidal inundation, wildlife values, and scenic values. Social categories that should
be identified are: historic values, recreational values, residential values, institutional
values and land values. All these factors should be photographed on a transparent print.
Second, a designer should establish a value system to interpret the data. McHarg
proposes three grades of value (using hierarchy color and tonal intensity) to represent
these factors. For the physiographic values, a darker tone indicates greater costs. For the
natural and the social values, a darker tone indicates a higher value.
Third, a designer maps the interpretation values into a series of suitability maps.
In this stage, the transparencies of physiographic factors will be layered with each other
to produce the composite “physiographic obstructions” (see figure 6). Cultural and
natural factors will also be interpreted into a series of suitability maps. Natural and
cultural factors will be layered with each other to produce the composite “social values”.
Fourth, a designer overlay the suitability maps, the “physiographic obstructions”
and the “social values”. The relevant factors on the composite maps present the result of
57
the gross shades of gray for all the possible factors, and evaluate possible alignments.
After this systematic rational analysis, a designer can get a map that shows recommended
minimal-social-cost alignment (see figure 7).
McHarg's method proposes an integration of ecological knowledge into urban
planning to emphasize the environmental awareness approach to land use. He follows
three guiding principles of ecological planning: (1) degree of compatibility: land-use
patterns that complement each other (such as watershed protection and appropriate
buffers) will be given a higher value, (2) optimize multiple land uses which aims at
solving more than one problem with the same activity, and (3) know the physiographic
regions such as place geology, hydrology, and native vegetation at the beginning of the
planning process.55
McHarg reflects this method on different locations. Although he uses
different value systems for each site (based on the surrounding context), he still uses the
same overlaying method for every site.
McHarg applied his analytical method on the existing open spaces in Philadelphia
Metropolitan area. McHarg notes that this case study reveals the application of the
ecological view to the problem of selecting open spaces in metropolitan regions.56
He
argues that this model enhances the present mode of planning which ignores natural
processes. McHarg selects eight dominant aspects of natural process and ranks them
based on both value and intolerance to human use. These aspects are: (1) surface water,
(2) marshes, (3) flood plains, (4) aquifer recharge area, (5) aquifers, (6) steep slopes, (7)
55
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969), 144.
56
Ibid.
58
forest and woodland, and (8) flat land. McHarg argues that reversing the order of these
aspects will reflect the gross hierarchy of urban suitability57
(see figure 8).
Figure 6: Composite “physiographic obstructions”: Ian McHarg, Design with Nature,
1969).
57
For more information about this case study refer to: Ian McHarg, Design with Nature
(New York: The Natural History Press, 1969), 43-65.
59
Figure 7: The recommended minimal- social- cost alignment: Ian McHarg, Design with,
1969.
Instead of using “blanket standard” for open spaces, McHarg suggests finding
discrete aspects of natural processes that carry their own values and prohibitions.
According to McHarg, analyzing these aspects individually and using the overlay system
60
leads to informed decisions about the suitable land-use. The understanding of these
processes should draw the pattern for future development.
Figure 8: Summary map of water and land features for part of the metropolitan area: Ian
McHarg, Design with Nature, 1969.
Another technique that McHarg uses to evaluate site analysis findings is an
evaluation matrix. This matrix, according to McHarg, summarizes the inter-compatibility
of land use, and it reflects the natural determinant for their occurrence and the outcomes
61
of their operation. He argues that if the results of this matrix are applied, this will lead to
the maximum potential conjunction of compatible land uses.
This is the method by which the nature of the place may be learned. It is
because... and so, it varies, it offers different resources. The place must be
understood to be used and managed well. This is the ecological planning
method.58
In his book, Design with Nature, McHarg uses the Potomac River Basin as a case
study to apply this approach of analysis. The value system that he used for this particular
case study includes: climate, geology (bedrock geology and historical geology),
physiographic (the Allegheny Plateau, the Ridge and Valley Province, the Great Valley,
the Blue Ridge, the Piedmont, and the Coastal Plain), hydrology, ground water, soil, plant
association, wildlife, water problems, interpretation, mineral resources, slope,
accessibility, water resources, and intrinsic suitabilities (agriculture, forestry, recreation
and urban).
According to McHarg, this method gives a simple sequential examination that
reflects a deep understanding of the place. This approach of understanding sites as
interacting systems "a storehouse and a value system" helps in proposing potential land
use as association between these values. McHarg argues that the ecological planning
method is rational, explicit and will always lead to the same conclusion. In “Ian McHarg,
Landscape Architecture, and Environmentalism: Ideas and Methods in Context”, Spirn
addresses that this method was not used just to understand how different sites were
formed, but also to identify problems and potentials that might be ignored. McHarg
method investigates how different sites function and evolve.
58
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969), 144.
62
The Context-Sensitive Method
James A. LaGro
The Context-Sensitive Method59
is a diagnostic process that identifies the
opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program. It is systematic process
which sits within a sequence of steps of sustainable development. These steps include
programming, site selection, site inventory (physical, biological and cultural), site
analysis, conceptual design, design development, construction documentation and project
implementation (see figure 9). The first three steps are interrelated and can function in
reciprocity relations.
Figure 9: Site planning and design process: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual
Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
A context-sensitive approach, according to LaGro, helps to protect public health,
safety, and welfare. This approach acknowledges different issues of a site in order to
avoid inherent site problems or constraints, and also to capitalize on inherent site assets
or opportunities.60
LaGro argues that his method of site analysis can limit long-term
59
This method was labeled by its founder, James LaGro.
60
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
63
maintenance costs and reduce the risks to life and property from natural hazards.61
LaGro's main goal from applying context sensitive approach is to create sustainable
development that protects and celebrates each the ecological integrity and cultural
heritage of a site.
According to LaGro, building sites are the smallest units in a broad range of
spatial scales when performing site analyses. He states that the features of a site and the
project’s program determine the data that are collected for the site inventory.62
LaGro
classifies the contextual data sets of a site into three categories: physical, biological, and
cultural attributes (see table 3.2). In his position, these three attributes form a site and
need to be considered in site analysis in order to create suitable and sustainable design.
Table 3.2: Examples of physical, biological, and cultural attributes that may be mapped
at the site scale: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable
Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
Categories Subcategories Attributes
Physical Soils Bearing capacity
Porosity Stability
Erodibility
Fertility
Acidity (pH)
Topography
Elevation
Slope
Aspect
Hydrology Surface drainage
Water chemistry
Depth to seasonal water table
Aquifer recharge areas
Seeps and springs
61
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
62
Ibid.
64
Table 3.2 cont.
Categories Subcategories Attributes
Geology Landforms
Seismic hazards
Depth to bedrock
Climate Solar access
Winds (i.e., prevailing or winter)
Fog pockets
Biological Vegetation Plant communities Specimen trees
Exotic invasive species
Wildlife Habitats for endangered or threatened species Cultural
Land use
Prior land use Land use on adjoining properties
Legal Political boundaries
Land ownership
Land use regulations
Easements and deed restrictions
Utilities Sanitary sewer
Storm sewer
Electric
Gas
Water
Telecommunications
Circulation Street function (e.g., arterial or collector)
Traffic volume
Historic Buildings and landmarks
Archaeological sites
Sensory Visibility
Visual quality
Noise
Odors
LaGro divides site investigation into two main phases which are: site inventory
and site analysis (suitability analysis). In the site inventory phase, a designer collects the
physical, biological, and cultural data needed for this program-driven analysis (see figure
65
10). In the site analysis phase, a designer diagnoses and identifies the opportunities and
constraints for a specific land use program (see figure 11). According to LaGro, the
discovery of site constraints during the site analysis is a common reason for revising a
project’s program.
Figure 10: Site inventory: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to
Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
Figure 11: Site analysis: James A. LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to
Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design, 2007.
66
Site Inventory
The Context-Sensitive Method requires an understanding of relevant site's
contextual attributes. "Site inventory is a focused process of collecting and mapping
essential attribute data."63
As LaGro states, although one set of attribute data are needed
to analyze a site for the suitability of particular activity or land use, a different set of
attributes will be required for other activities or uses. LaGro considers site inventory a
fundamental step in understanding the character of any site and its physical, biological,
and cultural links with the surrounding landscape. LaGro also addresses the importance
of basic and applied research in understanding the physical, biological, and cultural
phenomena. LaGro recommends that designers consider the following four factors to help
them decide which attributes to map and analyze, and which attributes to ignore:
1. Proposed site uses (for example, project program),
2. Existing on-site and off-site conditions,
3. Requirements for permitting and approvals, and
4. Costs of data collection and analysis. 64
LaGro argues that these four factors dictate the scope of a site inventory and
analysis. He recommends that designers predefine the goals of the inventory to narrow
the scope of data collection effort which can save vast amounts of time, money, and
professional expertise.
63
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007), 102.
64
Ibid, 99.
67
Physical Attributes. A site inventory of physical attributes, according to LaGro, is
driven by two main factors which are: the program of a project and the characteristics of
a site. Physical attributes on a site can have a broad impact on how a site is developed.
These attributes and their implementations vary from a site to another or even from one
season to another. They include parcel size and shape, topography (elevation, slope, and
aspect), geology, hydrology, soil, climate and natural hazards (see table 3.3).
Table 3.3: Selected physical factors to consider in site planning and design: James A.
LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site
Design, 2007, 124.
Category Attribute Land Use Significance
Hydrology Depth to water table Suitability for building foundation excavations
Suitability for on-site wastewater treatment
Drainage patterns Flooding hazards
Stormwater management
Groundwater recharge
Geology Depth to bedrock Suitability for building foundation excavations
Suitability for on-site wastewater treatment
Fault lines Earthquake hazards
Landslide hazards
Soils pH
Porosity
Structure and texture
Plant selection and growth
Suitability for on-site wastewater treatment
Erosion potential
Topography
Slope gradient
Circulation system safety
Building design and construction complexity
Erosion potential
Stormwater management
Slope aspect Microclimate
Suitability for solar architecture
Elevation Visibility and visual quality
Drainage patterns
Climate Wind direction Location of outdoor activities
Windbreak location
Solar access Building design and placement
Location of outdoor activities
68
LaGro states that site inventory maps are very useful in documenting the spatial
distribution of a particular attribute. The physical attributes of a site, such as vegetation or
slope, are unevenly distributed over the landscape. Other attributes, such as average
seasonal temperatures and precipitation, show very little spatial variation at the site scale;
but they can vary dramatically throughout the year. This temporal variation, for instance,
might influence the use of a site from season to another.65
Biological Attributes. For LaGro, mapping the biological attributes in many sites
is a crucial part of the site inventory. He considers landscape ecology as one of the most
precious resources that provide a valuable conceptual framework for studying landscapes
and making environmental planning, restoration, and management decisions. LaGro
states that understanding environmental quality is fundamental in site analysis due to the
demands for acknowledging potential impacts of land development proposals on
environment. LaGro states that protecting existing native vegetation and wildlife
contributes to the unique sense of place of a site.66
Ecological community (habitat fragmentation, exotic species, and wetlands), trees
and wildlife species are the most critical biological attributes in addressing different
issues and potentials of a site. Trees, for example, can generate different ecological,
economic, and social benefits; they provide shade and can reduce heating and cooling
costs of nearby buildings. According to LaGro, existing trees on a site need to be
protected during the construction of buildings, utilities, and other site structures.67
Some
65
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
66
Ibid.
67
Ibid.
69
construction impacts (such as soil compaction of the root zone, scraping the bark from
trunks and branches, and grading within the root zone) might damage, kill, or lead to the
slow demise of these trees. Existing trees must be mapped during site analysis to avoid
these situations.68
Cultural Attributes. The Context Sensitive Method includes different cultural
contexts that need to be acknowledged during site analysis. Historical, legal, aesthetic,
and other socially significant attributes associated with land and landscapes are the main
topics for this set of attributes. According to LaGro, understating these attributes
contributes in acknowledging the values and meanings of a site to create or maintain the
“sense of place”.
Analyzing cultural attributes should include the followings: land use and tenure
(such as prior and current land use and land ownership), land use regulations (such as
federal and state regulations and local plans and regulations), property values, public
infrastructure (such as circulation and utilities), building and neighborhood characters,
historic resources, and sensory perception (such as visibility, visual quality, and noise and
odors). Land use controls, for example as LaGro notes, play a crucial role in limiting the
range and intensities of permitted uses. Historic resources also can be significant design
determinants if they are present on a site or adjacent to it. Visibility and visual quality
also influence land use preferences and real estate value.69
68
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
69
Ibid.
70
Site Analysis
LaGro defines site analysis as "a diagnostic process that identifies the
opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program."70
He considers site
analysis as an essential phase to the design of sustainable built environments. LaGro
refers to Frederick R. Steiner’s definition of the suitable design. A suitable design
according to Steiner is "the process of determining the fitness, or the appropriateness, of a
given tract of land for a specified use."71
LaGro summarizes that a suitable site for a
particular land use is a site that accommodates the proposed development with the
minimum amount of inputs or resources.
According to LaGro, a suitability analysis involves the following three steps:
1. Identify suitability criteria for each anticipated land use,
2. Collect and map the relevant site attribute data, and
3. Identify and map the site locations with attribute values that meet the suitability
criteria for the targeted land uses.72
LaGro argues that an important step in evaluating the suitability of a site for
specific uses is the selection of attributes, sources of data, and suitability criteria. A
designer should consider gathering relevance, reliable and available set of data that can
help him/her evaluate the suitability of a site.
70
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
71
Frederick R. Steiner, The Living Landscape: An Ecological Approach to Landscape
Planning (McGraw-Hill College, 2000), 188.
72
Ibid, 173.
71
Site attributes analysis branches into two main categories: (1) single attribute
analysis and (2) multiple attribute analysis. Single attribute analysis is the analysis of an
individual attribute layer. According to LaGro, this approach of analysis divides the
spatial distribution of attribute values. It might have several objectives, but in many
situations, the primary objective is to find locations that meet one or more specified
attribute conditions.73
This partitioning of attribute values can identity site areas that are
either:
1. Greater than a specified minimum (for example, elevations at least one meter
above sea level);
2. Less than a specified maximum (for example, slopes less than 20 percent); or
3. Within a specified range (for example, slopes with southwestern, southern, or
southeastern aspects).74
Multiple attributes analysis, on the other hand, involves overlaying two or more
layers of attributes (see figure 12). LaGro notes that the intersection and the union
analyses are two of the most common and useful algebraic functions for analyzing
multiple attribute layers.
Site suitability analysis should address constraints and opportunities of a site.
LaGro defines opportunities as "favorable, suitable, or advantageous locations on the
site."75
He also defines constraints as "locations that are unsuitable or restricted for a
73
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
74
Ibid, 174.
75
Ibid, 196.
72
particular use."76
Constraints like natural hazards are critical and affect the future of any
project. Ignoring or discounting potential hazards can lead to expensive or even deadly
disasters.
Figure 12: Overlay analysis using a linear combination approach: Source: Chrisman,
copyrighte1997, p. 132, Figure 5-11. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
As cited in James A LaGro. Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land
Planning and Site Design, 2007.
Site constraints analysis, in LaGro's method, also addresses the physiographic
constraints. He states that these constraints can cause social and environmental impacts
on the project, and can also affect its functional or land use feasibility, and it will
generate more financial requirements for construction, maintenance, and operation. A
designer must be aware of these constraints and acknowledge them during site analysis in
order to make a reasonable decision about the feasibility of a project.
LaGro also discusses the importance of analyzing urban structure that the project
will fit in. Analyzing pedestrian circulation, for example, within and around a site should
76
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007), 196.
73
identify potential entrance locations, and should also identify problems such as lack of
walkway connectivity, (unfulfilled desire lines), inadequate capacity (congestion),
conflicts among vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians (safety hazards), lack of seating and
other site furniture (amenities).77
Constraints analysis might reflect urban streetscapes problems such as the lack of
spatial enclosure, poor-quality materials (such as paving and seating), lack of
maintenance (such as curbs, walkways and plantings), no unifying design theme (such as
materials, forms, and proportions), insufficient or excessive lighting, and insufficient
seating and other site furniture (such as signs and trash containers).78
According to LaGro, site opportunities, such as natural features (water or
landforms), landmark buildings, or other significant cultural features, have social,
economic, ecological, and aesthetic value. He recommends designers acknowledge and
integrate significant site amenities in their plans to help them in preserving the sense of
place of a site and enhance the quality of life for future site users. LaGro argues that one
of the most important objectives of site analysis is to discover the special, interesting, and
valuable features of a site and its context. If a designer does not investigate a site within
its context, many of the existing qualities, which reflect unique natural areas and
culturally significant local places, might be overlooked.79
77
James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
78
Ibid.
79
Ibid.
74
The Experiential Method
Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag
The Experiential Method translates the natural landscape into a poetical
experience. Both Lassus's approach and Haag's approach in reading sites propose an
innovative landscape methodology that aims at transforming the landscape design into a
viable practice. Lassus argues that a complementary perspective of discovering the
physical and the sensual, the real and the imagined, and the external and the internal
forces of a landscape is required to comprehensively understand the landscape and
transform it in a way that respects places identities.80
Lassus aims at reviving the sensual approach to its rightful place as means of
knowing the landscape. He argues that the sensory approach that makes both nature and
human nature visible is an indispensable way to reconcile science and the sensory word.
In this approach, Lassus suggests creating a harmonic balance between the nature of
culture and the culture of nature.81
Lassus considers landscape design as the set from which other site forces are
determined rather than seeing landscape design as a set of requirements that have to meet
the needs of other forces. Lassus addresses the importance of acknowledging
requirements that are related to the maintenance and enhancement of natural process, but
these requirements must serve the overall experience of landscape design.
In The Sensual Landscape of Bernard Lassus, Peter Jacobs discusses Lassus's
method in approaching the opportunities and the challenges of a landscape. Lassus starts
80
Bernard Lassus, the Landscape Approach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,
1998).
81
Ibid.
75
analyzing a site with a programmatic perspective based on the qualities of a site and brief
requirements of the project. Lassus develops a story that is derived from planning the
activities and the ecological, economic, and social processes of a site integrated into an
overall scenario of landscape development.82
Lassus's narrative approach is a unique
approach that searches for strategies of visually rendering cultural forces that participated
in forming the landscape.
Lassus calls his method of site analysis the “inventive analysis”.83
His method
consists of approaching a site in its singularity. He argues that in order to critically
understand a site and its qualities, a designer should visit a site with a “floating attention”
Lassus states that a designer must “immerse” himself/herself in a site in order to
understand its structure including the hidden ones. He advises designers to visit a site at
different times of the day, and under different circumstances. Multiple site visits will
generate different views, stories and memories about a site. Lassus notes that a designer's
main concern of visiting a site frequently should be "to live a few moments by and with it
in its shade and lights, to read and chat there."84
A designer should also discover the
discriminatory points of view in order to discover the micro-scale of a site, and find the
perspective that gather them in the image of a site. This step, according to Lassus, will
82
Peter Jacobs, “The Sensual Landscape of Bernard Lassus”, in the Landscape
Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1998.
83
Bernard Lassus, the Landscape Approach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,
1998).
84
Ibid. 57.
76
help a designer to identify and test the visual and tactical scale in order to understand the
memories, the localities, the tales, the local legend, the stories, and the history of a site.85
Lassus also recommends that designers test new hypotheses about the past, the
present and the future of a site. He argues that this approach help designers to imagine
different “scenarios” about the future formal organization of the site.
Participatory experience for Lassus, as Riley addresses, is the start, the essence,
and the end of any design; every design is purposed to structure, serve and enhance
human experience.86
Lassus uses the term “experience” as Riley defines it: "is the gestalt
of a person's reaction to, involvement in, a landscape, and involves all of the
psychologically standard steps or states: perception, recognition, affect, evaluation ... on a
fantasy and behavior."87
Lassus distinguishes between the experience of someone who
knows a site very well and between someone who visits a site for the first time. Both
persons give significant imagination about a site and both generate different approaches
in understanding it. On the other hand, each person will develop a unique set of images,
stories, and memories.
Lassus's approach is built from his feeling of landscape, his theoretical ideas
about landscape and his passion for creating landscape that gives meanings and identities
to places and to the activities of the people that dwell this landscape. He reads the sensual
nature of a site such as its sounds, sights and smells, and develops a series of experiments
85
Bernard Lassus, The Landscape Approach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,
1998).
86
Ibid.
87
Robert B. Riley, “Experience and Time in the Work of Bernard Lassus,” in The
Landscape Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,
1998, 9.
77
with people and their relationships with the surrounding landscape. These experiments
help Lassus in understanding a site within its visible and invisible forces.
According to Jacobs, one of the most known and elaborated experiments that
Lassus has conducted is the “Red Dot”. This experiment was conducted for many public
sites. In 1971, for example, Lassus conducted this experiment in Kunstzone, Munich. He
placed a three wall white stand and a long table stacked with two sets of papers; one set is
photocopies of the experiment description, and the other set has sheets of drawing papers.
In the center of each drawing paper, Lassus printed an orange circle. Participants were
asked to draw with, on, from, against, around these circles, and then set these drawing on
the walls beside each other. The red dot was a symbol of the sun, traffic sign, human
face, etc. (see figure 13).
Lassus converts these drawings of red dots into two scales which are the visual
scale and the tactical scale. The visual scale reflects a pattern of red dot that form a grid
on a single sheet. On the other hand, the tactical scale is observed from the individual
sheets that have been touched by every participant in the experiment.88
Lassus
distinguishes between these two scales based on their meanings; the visual scale gives an
integrative perception of the overall image, and the tactical scale gives the sensory
knowledge of place derived by touch and smell.89
According to Riley, Lassus is one of few landscape architects who give the time a
heavy role in understanding sites. Lassus visualizes a site as “time-lapse film”, a
88
For more information about the Red Dot experiment refer to “The Game of Red Dots”
in The Landscape Approach by Bernard Lassus.
89
Peter Jacobs, “The Sensual Landscape of Bernard Lassus”, in The Landscape
Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1998.
78
cinematic history of interventions and transformations past, present and future.90
Lassus
argues that the history and the present of the landscape will perpetuate the sensual
approach of the future, "for Lassus, the more we know about the gardens of the past, the
more we recognize their intimate within the poetical and cognitive concerns of their own
day."91
Analyzing existing sites, for Lassus, is to discover what qualities have been
hidden by the erosion of time. Acknowledging these qualities and understanding the
reasons for their disappearing is essential to create a design intervention that can be
maintained for the future.92
Similar to Lassus, Haag considers time as a powerful force that changes sites. He
argues that in order to understand the landscape, a designer has to understand work and
disposition of the nature. Haag's site analysis approach emphasizes the importance of
spirit, feeling, direct contact with sites, and informed intuition. Haag's approach,
according to Meyer, "opens up connection between both the environmental and cultural
histories of a particular place-Seattle and the Pacific Northwest- and phenomenological
response and ecological thinking."93
Haag's approach in site analysis aims at getting the absolute dissolution and the
very essence of a space to be able to manipulate it with minimum intervention and keep it
90
Robert B. Riley, “Experience and Time in the Work of Bernard Lassus,” in The
Landscape Approach, edited by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania, 1998.
91
Stephen Bann, “Afterward”, in Bernard Lassus, The Landscape Approach
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 184.
92
Ibid.
93
Elizabeth Meyer, “Seized by Sublime Sentiments”, in Richard Haag Bloedel Reserve
and Gas Works Park, edited by William S Saunders, Princeton Architectural Press; first
edition,1998.
79
as simple as it can be. He argues that life is very complicated, and gardens present
fantastic places for calming down and finding some “haven”. In this context, Haag
implies that the designers' role is to create some “places for retreat” in the universe that
anyone can fit himself/herself into away from the pressure of modern life style.
Figure 13: The Red Dot Experiment: Bernard Lassus. The Landscape Approach, 1998.
80
According to Haag, design intervention can come from altering or adjusting the
existing conditions of a site, editing, removing, managing, or gently shaping the
landscape.94
He always starts his site exploration by looking for the most sacred and
iconic condition or context about the site. Haag’s goal is not to ignore site's history but to
save it, preserve it, and adaptively use it again.
In the site analysis of Gas Work Park in Seattle, for example, Haag was looking
for the most significant iconic component of the site, and he eventually concluded that
the remains of the industrial plant are the most powerful icon with its historical heritage
among other contexts. Haag refused to destroy the remains of the industrial plant, and he
used these remains to reflect his adaptive reuse approach. He argues that a designer
should not ignore existing challenges in a site or even eliminate them from intervention
plans. Haag's unique intervention of the site of Gas Work Park makes this site one of the
most famous and appreciated landscape in the United States. Haag's intervention also
continues to influence many landscape architects to face different conditions and
challenges of a site.
Haag’s main argument about analyzing sites is that a designer should create
relations with the natural processes within the complex narratives of the site. Haag
believes that the complexity of the existing landscape provides a good resource to learn
from site history which can draw its potential futures. Haag's selective editing involves
the landscape to involve in a dialogue with its users to make them understand its history
of disturbance.
94
Gary R. Hilderbrand, “A Teacher's Teacher” , in Richard Haag Bloedel Reserve and
Gas Works Park, edited by William S Saunders, Princeton Architectural Press; first
edition,1998.
81
Summary
This research acknowledges the significance of the discussed methods, but it also
points at some of their limitations and biases that limit their abilities in giving a
comprehensive site analysis. The Technical Method of site analysis by Kevin Lynch and
Gary Hack focuses on the purely formal, visual, and the aesthetic qualities of landscape.
This method of site analysis has two main branches; site analysis and user analysis.
Lynch and Hack’s method relies on the relation between the natural categories of a “site”
and the social categories of “user”. The Technical Method is accessible for the majority
of users (students, architects, planners, ecologists, etc.); it invites different community
members to participate in the developmental process. The Technical Method can be
understood in direct and non-symbolic approach, and therefore, unambiguous and
unguarded terms.
Lynch and Hack's method is technical. Although it presents a significant set of
concepts and techniques that help in revealing great deal of knowledge about sites, Lynch
and Hack, briefly, mention the underlying values of a site, and they do not explore these
values in depth. They also do not discuss the importance of these values in forming
communities.
The Scientific Systematic Method of site analysis by Ian McHarg focuses on the
relation between man and nature. It proposes a rational scientific understanding of natural
processes. McHarg's method aims at incorporating resource values, social values, and
esthetic values in addition to the normal engineering considerations about the
physiographic criteria. The Scientific Systematic Method proposes an integration of
ecological knowledge into urban planning to emphasize the environmental awareness
82
approach. Although many researchers note that McHarg gives equally-weighted variables
for the different values (natural, physiographical, and social values), McHarg
recommends that during the inventory of a site, a designer should try not emphasize one
aspect of a site over the others. A designer should report and investigate most of the
components of a site with the same underlying values. When a designer starts to analyze
the data that he/she mapped, a new layer of values should appear in judging and
interpreting these data. McHarg clearly distinguishes between the collection of data and
between interpreting the relevant data.
McHarg's method has been criticized by some landscape architects because it
gives more weight to science rather than intuition. Others argue that it would be
expensive to generate this analytical process in many professional projects; especially for
urban planning projects.95
McHarg's method is more oriented toward large-scale site
analysis. Although his ideas can be reflected on small-scale sites, it would be hard, very
expensive, or even unnecessary to apply his techniques.
The Context-Sensitive Method by James LaGro is a diagnostic process that
identifies the opportunities and constraints for a specific land use program. It aims at
avoiding inherent site problems or constraints, and also to capitalize on inherent site
assets or opportunities. LaGro's goal from applying context sensitive approach is to create
sustainable development that protects and celebrates the ecological integrity and the
cultural heritage of a site.
95
Anne Whiston Spirn, “Ian McHarg, Landscape Architecture, and Environmentalism:
Ideas and Methods in Context”, in Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, edited
by Michel Conan, Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and
Collection, 2000.
83
LaGro approaches site analysis from a diagnostic perspective that evaluates a site
for future suitability and sustainability. Although the meanings and the values of a site
are crucial for the suitability and the sustainability of any project, LaGro discusses the
tangible forces of culture and does not dig deep to understand underlying values.
The Experiential Method, presented both in Lassus's and Haag's approaches of
site analysis, proposes an innovative landscape methodology that aims at transforming
the landscape design into a viable practice. Lassus's approach is flexible; "He offers no
rules, no easy credit, certainly no stylistic convention, but rather exploration, journeys for
uncertain destination, into the nature of the landscape experience."96
Lassus refuses to
deal with the landscape with just its components; he points at the pleasure in its mystery,
incongruous, and critical aspects. Although Lassus addresses the importance of other
considerations (such as the ecological environmental confederations) in site analysis, he
did not discuss them in the sense of his approach.
Haag's approach connects both the environmental and cultural histories of a
particular place and phenomenological response with ecological thinking. He influences
designers to try to transform the limitations of a site into future potentials that can make
their designs significant with minimal disturbance to the landscape.
The Experiential Method adds a new dimension to the understanding of the
landscape; it translates the natural landscape into a poetical experience. Although Lassus
and Haag acknowledge the importance in analyzing the environmental and the physical
attribute of a site, they did not discuss them in cooperation with their ideas. It might be
hard for a designer to compromise between these aspects of perceiving a site. This 96
Robert B. Riley. “Experience and Time in the Work of Bernard Lassus”, in The
Landscape Approach, by Bernard Lassus, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,
1998), 9.
84
conflict can create unsettled ground that might force a designer to choose between their
method and traditional site analysis methods.
All of the previous methods are significant; they all address critical aspects of the
notion of a site and approach site analysis from different perspectives. They all aim at
getting the most valuable information that enriches design process toward the most
suitable design. They all recommend engaging surrounding context (social, historical,
environmental, and economical, etc.) in acknowledging a site and its characteristics, and
they all argue that a site cannot be understood in isolation.
Although each of these methods has a set of values that they argue a designer
should cover the values and their meanings vary from one method to another, these
methods are oriented toward different scales of sites. The Scientific Systematic Method
targets regional planning projects and it would be unsuitable for small scale site analysis.
The Technical Method focuses more on the neighborhood scale of a site and analyzes it
within the neighboring context. The Context Sensitive Method navigates between
different scales but mainly focuses on the neighborhood scale and the site specific scale.
The Experiential Method is a site specific method that focuses on the existing iconic
qualities of the site itself and the identity and the sense of the place (see the matrix of the
different value systems proposed by each method).
One of the most significant differences among these methods is the role of the
designer within the site analysis phase. The Scientific Systematic Method tends to
eliminate the designer’s values and intuition. McHarg argues that his method can be
applied by different researchers and will always lead to the same conclusion.97
While the
97
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969).
85
Experiential Method acknowledges and emphasizes that each designer acts as a filter, and
embraces his/her unique ideas about the same site.
Each method has its own vocabulary, or even uses a similar term in various ways.
LaGro, for example, uses the term “suitability” in a very practical term that addresses
how a sustainable design can reduce the cost of maintaining site and create better
environment. On the other hand, “suitable” design for Haag is a design that maintains
nature and human values from the past and the present to the future.
It is crucial, to achieve the goals of this thesis, to acknowledge the inherent biases
of each method to critically understand, analyze, and evaluate them, and also to be aware
of these biases while using the concepts, the applications, and the techniques proposed by
these methods. The biases of these methods can be understood from different
perspectives. One way for analyzing their biases is to understand who benefits the most
from these methods and concepts of the site analysis process. In other words, who are the
audience and the clients (developers, landscape architects, the existing or the future users
of a site, etc.) that are targeted by the proponents of these methods?
The Technical Method by Lynch and Hack and the Context-Sensitive Method by
LaGro seem to be more oriented toward serving the goals of developers and finding
solutions and opportunities to minimize the cost in constructing projects and minimize
the future maintenance costs. Although these two methods generate site analysis in order
to find the best site for the best use, the criteria for the best site and the best use will be
stated by developers not by the existing or the future users of a site. Suitable outcomes
for Lunch, Hack and LaGro would be a design that meets the requirements of a developer
or a client.
86
87
The Scientific Systematic Method by McHarg is an idealistic method that is
concerned about the environment and what is suitable use that would serve the
environmental qualities. McHarg's method of site analysis reflects a scientific
understanding of natural processes. McHarg states that the scientific understanding of
natural processes can help designers navigate between different alternatives to effectively
choose the most suitable plan for future development.98
McHarg argues that his scientific
method of site analysis transforms site components into systems that interact with each
other to create the urban fabric.
Lassus and Haag try to serve the artistic version of landscape. They both try to get
the essence of a site. The suitable outcomes for Lassus and Haag are more personal and
focus more on how people recognize the experiential quality of a site. Lassus and Haag
privilege the individual experience of the place over the satisfactory contextual quality; a
context for Lassus and Haag is a linkage of ideas rather a physical context or geospatial
context.
Another significant differentiation between the methods is the set of techniques
and their implementations. Although on-site exploration, for example, is a common
technique between these methods, it differs in how it is applied from one method to
another. Site visits in the Technical Method and the Experiential Method is an act that
will be more useful if it is done without having any preconceived notions about the future
use of a site. This approach leads to uncovering more issues and to minimize the chance
of ignoring some crucial information. On the other hand, the Scientific Systematic
Method and the Context Sensitive Method consider site exploration as a program driven
98
Ian McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, 1969).
88
act that orients the site analysis approach, and should be purposefully made for the
suitability of a site to a particular development.
Matrix 2: The Matrix of the Different Techniques Proposed by each Method
The Methods
Techniques
Flo
atin
g A
tten
tion
On-S
ite
Explo
rati
on
Par
tici
pat
ory
Exper
ience
Map
pin
g
Dia
gra
ms
Rem
ote
Sen
sing
Fie
ld S
urv
ey
Inte
rvie
ws
Pre
ceden
ts
Nar
rati
ve
The Technical
The Scientific Systematic
The Context-Sensitive
The Experiential
Having these differences in analyzing a site among these methods allow exploring
sites from different perspectives and different angles. It also gives students a wide
spectrum of tools and vocabulary that allow them navigate through their own value
system, and, in some situations, to create a hybrid method by overlaying these methods to
get the most useful tools of them to achieve the most comprehensive reading of a site. It
is useful for students to understand these methods, their overlapping and their conflicts to
increase the students' ability to decide which method to use, how to use it, and in what
particular context. It is very critical for students to understand what is missing in each
method and the inherent biases of each.
89
This research labels these methods based on their techniques and concepts. Other
labeling systems can be used in addressing these methods' approaches. For example, the
Scientific Systematic Method and the Context-Sensitive Method are diagnostic methods
that aim at evaluating the site in term of its performance. On the other hand, the
Technical Method is a descriptive method that re-acknowledges what is already known.
And the Experiential Method is an interventionist method that emphasizes the designer’s
role in understanding and transforming a site. These methods give critical ideas,
techniques, and tools that can help students in reading sites with different lenses. The
next chapter presents different teaching methodologies and tools of discovery that can
help instructors and students investigate sites. Chapter Four will also, briefly,
acknowledge biases of instructors and students as one of the most critical issues facing
students and instructors during the site analysis phase which influence their judgments
about the site.
90
CHAPTER IV
THE TEACHING OF SITE ANALYSIS
This thesis aims at establishing a teaching framework that can help students read
sites in depth and understand different components of a site in a comprehensive manner.
The previous chapters discussed the theoretical background of issues related to the terms
“site” and “site analysis” and how they are approached from different perspectives. This
chapter discusses different teaching methods that can enhance students' learning and
different “tools of discovery” that can help students investigating sites. This chapter also,
briefly, acknowledges both instructors' biases and students' biases as one of the most
critical issues facing students and instructors during the site analysis phase; which
influence their judgments about the site. Acknowledging biases will allow students
develop their critical thinking skills and a self-awareness of the role as individuals play
during the site analysis process.
Teaching Methods
Landscape architecture is a field of professional activity and it is also an academic
discipline. Landscape architecture combines science, theory and practice. This allows
different teaching methods to take place in the teaching of site analysis. Since this thesis
proposes a course for teaching site analysis (which is more likely to gather architects,
landscape architects, and urban planners in the same class), a strong interdisciplinary
philosophy is required in designing this course. Various teaching methods are used in
teaching landscape architecture; but this chapter will focus on some of the methods (such
as brainstorming, field trips, and case studies) that are more related to the teaching of site
analysis.
91
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is used frequently in the design field. It focuses on a particular
topic within a limited time frame. Although brainstorming might be generated
individually, it is more effective if an instructor applies it as a group task. This method is
usually used to solve problems and to find new and creative approaches to unsatisfactory
or inefficient procedures or systems.1
Brainstorming can be applied by forming different groups of students and giving
them a particular issue to find quick solutions or ideas. This approach encourages
students to present their instant ideas that come immediately after getting the issue.
Students' ideas generated from the brainstorming work as catalysts for new responses.
Applying this method within a group leads to more creative and effective discussions that
result in more critical and successful solutions and interventions.
Brainstorming, according to Rita S. Dunn, and Kenneth J. Dunn, provides varied
instructional approaches that encourage students (from different skills and abilities) to
participate in the group conversations. Dunn and Dunn argue that this method can
promote the spontaneity and the creativity of each group as well as of each member
within the same group; each member of the group begins to link his/her ideas with other
group member's ideas and generate a new set of more comprehensive ideas and
suggestions in an efficient and productive manner.2 Brainstorming provides ideas that can
be effectively used as a base for the entire project.
1 Rita, S. Dunn, and Kenneth J. Dunn, Approaches to Individualizing Instruction:
Contracts and Other Effective Teaching Strategies (New York: Parker Publishing
Company, Inc., 1972).
2 Ibid.
92
Field Trips
Field trips is a common learning method that requires students to use the
theoretical knowledge taught during lectures and to apply methods and techniques
presented during class exercises. Lynch and Hack consider this method as one of the
richest sources for objective information during site analysis.3 Data gathered during site
visit are based on personal experience. Students and their instructor can spend some time
on a site trying to conceptualize different issues, qualities, and factors. Data can also be
gathered on a site from existing users. Data can be visual behavior or verbal which can be
recorded and documented using voice recorder, camera, or even notebook.
Lassus notes that this method can approach a site in its singularity. He argues that
in order to critically understand a site and its qualities, a designer should visit a site with a
“floating attention.” Lassus states that a designer must “immerse” himself/herself in a site
in order to understand its structure including the hidden ones. He advises designers to
visit a site at different times of the day and under different circumstances. Multiple site
visits will generate different views, stories, and memories about a site. Lassus notes that a
main concern for a designer from visiting a site frequently should be "to live a few
moments by and with it in its shade, and lights, to read and chat there."4 A designer
should also discover the discriminatory points of view in order to discover the micro-
scale of a site and find the perspective that gathers them in the image of a site. This step,
according to Lassus, will help a designer identify and test the visual and tactical scale in
3 Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984). 4 Bernard Lassus, The Landscape Approach (University of Pennsylvania, 1998), 57.
93
order to understand the memories, the localities, the tales, the local legend, the stories,
and the history of a site.5
Case Studies
Case studies are used in many professions; they present the collective record of
the progress and the development of information and knowledge in landscape
architecture. Mark Francis defines a case study as "a well-documented and systematic
examination of the process, decision-making and outcomes of a project that is undertaken
for the purpose of informing future practice, policy, theory and/or education."6 Case
studies is a well-established research method; it typically utilizes a variety of research
methods such as experimental, quasi-experimental, and historical analysis methods.
According to Francis, case studies are useful because they can provide practical
information on potential solutions to different issues. Case studies are also effective for
developing problem solving skills and useful evaluation strategies. Francis considers case
studies as a valuable way to build a body of criticism and critical theory.7 In the site
analysis process, case studies can open different perspectives in reading a site that can
help designers to analyze and evaluate the qualities of a site in reference to previous
experiences and approved knowledge.
There are multiple methods an instructor can use to teach site analysis; each
method generates different techniques, skills, and knowledge. The most important goal in
selecting among these methods can be used to encourage students to be active members
5 Bernard Lassus the Landscape Approach (University of Pennsylvania, 1998).
6 Mark Francis, Case Study Method for Landscape Architecture (Washington, D.C.:
Landscape Architecture Foundation, 1999), 9.
7 Ibid.
94
in the teaching process. Engaging students in active learning allows them to bring their
experiences and knowledge to the classroom discourse.
Tools of Discovery
Landscape architects use different tools during site analysis that can help them
understand the surrounding factors and conditions. These tools can help a designer
uncover what already exists and generate new ideas and knowledge about a site. These
tools (such as diagrams, maps, digital imagery, audio/video recordings, audible and visual
media, and human body and senses) can also play a significant role in documenting,
communicating, and reflecting designers' creative thinking.
Diagrams
Diagramming is a useful tool in representing spatial and physical relationships.
The main purpose of a diagram is to transform a complex idea into a simple and powerful
visual statement. Diagrams can analyze different issues on different scales. Figure/ground
diagrams, for example, generate urban scale analysis, nodes and landmarks diagrams
generate a neighborhood scale analysis, and site materials and site axes diagrams
generate a site-specific scale analysis (see figure 14).
Maps One of the main tools that landscape architects use are maps. Maps can help an
investigator gain a better understanding of a site on different scales and for different
qualities. Maps can give designers a power to control the scale and investigate a site in a
comprehensive manner. Maps (such as political maps, historical maps, topographic maps,
climate maps, economic or resource maps, and thematic maps) can uncover what an
95
investigator cannot see during the site visit, and they are rooted in and essential to power
and knowledge.8
Figure 14: Different diagramming scales to explain different site's qualities: Gordon
Cullen, The Concise Townscape, 2009.
Mapping is a common technology and language that different disciplines use and
read. Thompson Waterman states that these days, maps have become more accurate and
rich in information that can reflect different layers of discovery, “mapping shows not
only what exists, but also what possibilities exist. They offer a way of testing different
possibilities for design.”9
Mapping is a wide and rich science. It would be hard to cover all the mapping
techniques and tools in this section. Therefore, this section will focus on two well-known
and used mapping techniques called “mental maps” and “geographic information systems
(GIS) maps”. These two techniques of mapping vary between each other in their
8 Brian Harley, "Maps, Knowledge, and Power," in the Iconography of Landscape edited
by Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1988).
9 Thompson Waterman, The Fundamental of Landscape Architecture (Fairchild Books,
2009), 57.
96
complexity, applications, and purposes. Mental maps and GIS maps are used in different
scales, different context, and for different information sets.
Mental maps. Mental maps are one of the first maps that people used to locate
themselves in some place in the city. Mental mapping is a simple technique that allows
designer to draw his/her initial understanding of a site. These maps are based on a
designer perception and feeling about a place (see figure 15). Mental maps reflect a
designer’s understanding of a site and his/her way of interacting and dialoguing with
different forces and components of a site. Information from mental maps can address
circulation routes, human behavior, site context, events and other site specific qualities.
Figure 15: Mental map: Problems of the Boston image. Kevin Lynch, The Image of the
Cit, 1960.
In The Image of the City, Lynch focuses on the power of mental maps as a tool for
discovering a place. The mental map is an image held by an individual reflecting his/her
97
way of remembering a place.10
A designer can use this map to help him/her recall
information or even memories; mental maps are the designer’s way of placing
him/herself in the context. A good mental map can create a harmonious relation between
a site and a designer which will enrich his/her on-site experience. Although the
technology in creating maps has been evolved very significantly, mental maps remain
one of the most useful methods in re-discovering a site.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Maps. GIS is one of the most useful tools
in mapping different attributes of a site. GIS maps represent logical collections of
individual features with their geographic locations and shapes in addition to descriptive
information about each feature stored as attributes (see figure 16). Businesses,
governments, educators and scientists, environmental and conservation organizations,
natural resource groups, and utilities benefit from using GIS.
GIS combines software, hardware, and information for analyzing, managing, and
recording all geographical forms to set reference information. GIS is a useful tool in
organizing large amount of data into special maps and tables supporting the strategic
decision-making process. GIS allows designers view, understand, question, interpret, and
visualize data in many ways that reveal relations, patterns, and trends in the form of
maps, globes, reports, and charts.11
GIS maps can be very accurate and subjective, and a designer does not have any
personal inputs in formulating these maps. GIS maps can generate science based
knowledge that can be used to support an argument and to understand social and
10
Kevin Lynch. The Image of the City (Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1960).
11
RUP Data Solutions. Accessed March 23, 2013,
http://www.rupdata.com/Geographic_Information_System.html
98
environmental issues. Information from GIS maps can address environmental issues,
ecological information, natural and physical qualities, and social structures. However,
GIS may appear subjective but designers must be reflective on what information they
select and how it is to be used.
Figure 16: GIS map for the recreational facilities at Globeville and Elyria Swansea-
Denver.
Digital imagery
Landscape architects rely on digital imagery during site analysis because it
provides much of the site documentation and it can save moments, details, or even time.
Photography can help a designer in reading sites at two levels. At the ground level they
99
understand the human experience of the landscape at the scale of walking. At the sky
level, such as the aerial photography, different details that might be unseen at ground
level can be revealed. Spirn considers photography as a powerful tool that can be used for
various issues during the design process, "photography can be a way of thinking about
landscape, a means to read a landscape, to discover display processes and interactions,
and to map out the structure of ideas."12
Audio/Video Recordings
A designer can use audio and video recordings as a tool for documenting certain
events, actions, and behaviors. Recording is helpful when conducting interviews with site
users. Site users might share their feelings, memories, needs, and expectations about a
site. Audio and video recordings allow a designer to revisit and reread data. They also
give a livable image about a site within a particular time frame or event.
Audible and Visual Media
According to Lynch and Hack, newspapers, radio, television, novels, paintings,
popular songs, political speech, and advertisements can be helpful in understanding a site;
these tools record images and positions about the environment and the culture of a site in
a certain period.13
Although audible and visual media can provide different information
about different issues, different scales, and different urban and social settings, a designer
must be aware of the contexts and the biases of the generator of a particular media.
Narratives
12
Anne Whiston Spirn, “Reading and Telling Landscape: Photography as a Tool of
Discovery and Design”, A lecture at ASLA annual meeting, Phoenix 2012.
13
Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
100
Narratives help designers express their site reading in a condensed way. If a
designer uses narratives as a tool in discovering and documenting a site, he/she will
engage his/her personal experience, feelings, and perceptions. Although narratives can be
a poetical tool to talk about a site including some sensual qualities, it might reveal less
explicit information that cannot be understood by some readers with different knowledge
and backgrounds.
Human Body and Senses
The human body and senses are powerful tools that can help a student understand
a site. A student can use his/her body as a mean for measuring a site and its components
(see figure 15). A student should know, for example, his/ her standing height, standing
eye height, height to shoulders, seated height, seated eye height, back of knee down to
back of foot, legs: hips to floor, arm span: lateral reach, tip-to-tip of fingers, arm
overhead: floor to tip of finger, forward reach: shoulder to tip of finger, elbow to tip of
fingers, length of hand, width of hand, one inch on hand, length of foot, and his/ her pace.
It is important for students to understand the dimensions and proportions of the human
body in order to design public and private spaces that respect human convenience,
comfort, and satisfaction. In addition, this technique helps students think about the
different people who will be using these spaces.
Human senses, as well, are essential tools for a designer when reading sites.
Human senses can assist a designer in understanding the visual and the sensual qualities
of a site such as light and shadow, smell, sounds, and texture. In the Islamic landscape
design, for example, creating a dialogue between human senses and the landscape is the
essential goal of any design. When a designer uses his/her senses in understanding a site
101
he/she starts to develop a sensual relation that links him/her to the site. This unique
sensual relation can lead to a better understanding of the underlying forces and values of
a site, and also can create new opportunities to discover some qualities that cannot be
seen or evaluated by using traditional tools.
Figure 15: Le Modular, Le Corbusier, 1948.
Different tools should be selected and used with awareness of the different
purposes or situations. A site, a designer, and resources (such as budget, time and
availability) can determine what tools can be used in investigating sites. It is useful for
students to demonstrate a good knowledge about the tools that are available, where to use
them, and in what particular context. All these tools and others such as drawings,
matrices, and hand sketching can help students explore, read, and document sites in a
comprehensive manner.
102
Understanding Biases
Understanding biases is one of the most critical issues that faces students during
the site analysis phase which can affect their judgments related to a site. Instructors and
students are humans; they have their own beliefs and values. They must be aware of their
cultural and societal biases about certain groups or certain issues about a site. Their self-
awareness will promote the educational experience and eventually enhance students'
learning, "self-awareness plays a prominent role in the development of cultural
competence, improving classroom dynamics, and the results of classroom discussions."14
According to Maribel V. Bird, if instructors and students are aware about their own
biases, they will be more open and receptive to different positions.15
The self-awareness
of different biases from instructors and students will generate a productive conversation
that aims at generating the most useful outcomes during the site analysis phase.
In “Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change”, Ira Shor
argues that teaching is biased because instructors are not “impartial entities”. Their
personalities have been shaped through their personal experiences. Instructors
(consciously or unconsciously) reflect their past influences, values, and traditions
inherent to their cultures.16
Bird also argues that an instructor who recognizes his/her own
biases will be able to approach ideas and arguments from different angles which in turn
will encourage students to think more critically and have more valuable conversations.
14
Maribel V. Bird, “Exposing Cultural Bias in the Classroom: Self-Evaluation as a
Catalyst for Transformation” in Analytic Teaching and Philosophical Praxis, Vol. 32
Issue 1, 18.
15
Ibid. 16
Ira Shor, Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1992).
103
On the other hand, an instructor must be aware of the biases of his/her students. Bird
notes that understanding different biases generated by students will turn the classroom
into inclusive discourse that discusses different topics that are relevant to student's value
systems.17
Bird proposes two techniques to minimize the effects of the biases of an instructor
during the teaching process. For Bird, instructors should teach out of their comfort zone,
and second they should consider themselves as learners equally to their students. Bird
argues that an instructor, in general, is more open to discuss, argue and question if he/she
is teaching a topic that he/she is familiar with (the “comfort zones” for the instructor).
Teaching out of their comfort zone, according to Bird, could become the best opportunity
for an instructor to make some adjustments to remove the discomfort which will require
an instructor to modify or change behavior or even to gather knowledge or rationalization
instead of taking a defensive position, "teachers should be open to their own
transformations by challenging their own biases and assumptions."18
Another technique that Bird proposes is that an instructor considers
himself/herself as a learner equally to his/her students. This technique encourages
students to be active members in the teaching process. If students are engaged in the
teaching process they will bring their experiences and knowledge to the classroom
discourse. This interactive teaching method eliminates the possibility of generating
17
Ira Shor, Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1992).
18
Brian Harley, "Maps, Knowledge, and Power," in Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels
(eds.) The Iconography of Landscape (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
104
passive learning.19
Creating connections between an instructor and his/her students
benefit both the instructor and the students; it potentially reveals a higher level of
engagement and much more meaningful interaction. 20
The proposed site analysis course, presented in Chapter Five, targets first year
students in architecture, landscape architecture and urban planning programs. As Bird
notes, first year students arrive at the environment of a university with existing set of
biases; students come with preconceptions, prejudices, assumptions, and expectations. In
the teaching of site analysis, the conflicts between different biases (instructors’ biases and
students’ biases) are very common. Site analysis combines instructor biases, students'
biases, and the inherent biases of the method of site analysis. The instructor and the
students must be aware of these different biases in order to evaluate site issues in a
critical manner. An active dialogue between students and their instructor minimizes the
effects of different biases and opens new perspectives in approaching site issues.
Summary
Different methods can take place in teaching site analysis in order to enhance
students' learning experience; each method generates different techniques, skills and
knowledge. As well, different tools can be used for different purposes or situations. A
site, a designer, and resources (such as budget, time and availability) can determine the
most effective tools that can be used in investigating sites. It is useful for students to
19
According to Bird, passive learning is a direct result of not engaging students in the
classroom discourse. The students are not actually learning but collecting information
that most likely will never be critically analyzed, but simply used again in the same
form and shape as it was originally received from the instructor.
20
Maribel V. Bird, “Exposing Cultural Bias in the Classroom: Self-Evaluation as a
Catalyst for Transformation” in Analytic Teaching and Philosophical Praxis, Vol. 32
Issue 1, 18.
105
demonstrate a good knowledge about the available tools, where to use them, and in what
particular context. The most important goal of choosing among different methods and
techniques is to encourage students to be positive members in the teaching process to
allow them bring their experiences and knowledge to the classroom discourse.
This chapter also acknowledges the biases of instructors and students as one of
the most critical issues students face during the site analysis phase which can affect their
judgments about the site. The instructor and the students must be aware of these different
biases in order to evaluate site issues in a critical manner. This self-awareness generates
an active dialogue between students and their instructor minimizes the effects of different
biases, and open new perspectives in approaching site issues. Acknowledging this issue
will enhance the students’ learning and develop their critical thinking skills. Chapter
Five, will use all the information discussed in the previous chapters to establish a
framework for teaching site analysis that assists students in understanding how to read
sites in a comprehensive manner.
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CHAPTER V
THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING SITE ANALYSIS
This chapter proposes a framework for teaching site analysis which is based on
the theories, the methods, and the tools of discovery presented in the previous chapters.
The proposed teaching framework will be the structure for developing a course for
teaching site analysis for first year students in architecture, landscape architecture and
urban planning programs.
The proposed framework reflects the interaction between the knowledge
generated from the methodologies of site analysis presented in chapter three and the
experience generated by applying and using the teaching methods and the tools of
discovery presented in chapter four. This framework represents an integrative method
that combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic
methods of the evaluation and the documentation of sites.
The Concept of the Teaching Framework
The concept of the framework follows Christophe Girot's concepts of reading the
landscape presented in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture”. Girot's
framework consists of four operating concepts which he calls “Trace Concepts”. These
concepts are landing, grounding, finding, and founding. Girot argues that these concepts
help designers have better understanding of the surrounding context; these concepts are
clustered around issues of memory: marking, impressing, and founding.1
According to Girot, each concept of the four trace concepts focuses on a particular
“gradients” of discovery, inquiry, and resolution, and each concept requires specific
1 Christopher Girot, The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York:
Princeton Architectural Press, 1999).
107
attitude and action. Girot argues that to achieve the comprehensive understanding of any
site, the Four Trace Concepts should be followed in the same order. Girot notes that this
highly intuitive approach will enrich the ability of a designer to combine the physical
experiences with the local research.
Landing is the first moment when a designer arrives at a site; it is the first act of
reading a site. Landing describes the very first moment when a designer is transferred
from the unknown to the known. Landing only occurs once and requires a particular state
of mind. Girot encourages designers to land on a site with a complete sense of
displacement be more effective. A site should be approached with “wonderment” and
“curiosity”. Girot notes that every single detail in a site is very important and nothing is
allowed to be considered to be obvious or neutral. According to Girot, the sense of
landing is personal; a designer's initial landing draws impressions and insights that will
stay with him/her through the whole design process.2
Grounding, the second step in reading a site, is less personal and relates to the
careful research and analysis. A designer starts to understand a site by overlaying
different analytical layers and recognizing the visible and the invisible forces. When
grounding, a designer investigates a site from different angles and uses different lenses.
Grounding is when a designer starts collecting the required data (different environmental,
social, and cultural attributes) and examining, mapping, and evaluating different aspects
of a site. Grounding can occur several times during the reading of a site (depending on
the required information as a designer progress in his/her investigation of a site), and in
each time, it can reveal a new set of information.
2 Christopher Girot, The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York:
Princeton Architectural Press, 1999).
108
During the finding stage, a designer will put his/her ideas together. Finding
combines the process of searching as well as the outcomes. Finding gives the evidence to
support the designer’s initial intuitions about a site. Findings are unique because they
belong to a place and contribute to its identity.3 While finding, a designer starts the
brainstorming process. He/she starts to link the information together and draw some
conclusion about a site. Finding has a correlated relation with grounding; although
grounding has to occur before finding for the first time, some findings require a designer
to go back to a site and re-investigate different aspects of it to draw more clear and
accurate conclusions.
The last stage of Girot’s concepts is founding. In this step, a designer brings
his/her intervention to the site by importing something new or even working with the
existing. Founding is the result of analyzing the other three steps (landing, grounding, and
finding) "the act of founding is always a reaction to something that was already there."4
In the founding step, a designer starts using information and conclusions that have been
developed from the previous steps (landing, grounding, and finding) and reflects them
into real act toward a site development. Founding is the step when a designer starts to
make decisions about a site and transforming them into design actions.
The Four Trace Concepts defined by Girot will be the guideline for the proposed
teaching framework. This framework, as mentioned earlier, will be the structure used to
develop a course for teaching site analysis for first year students in architecture,
landscape architecture, and urban planning programs. First year design students are
3 Christopher Girot, The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York:
Princeton Architectural Press, 1999).
4 Ibid, 64.
109
targeted by this course because they represent a raw material with more ability to learn
and less discipline biases that they more likely will develop as they proceed in their
programs. This course also proposes joining students from the three programs in the same
course in order to introduce them to a wider spectrum of ideas, and also to give them the
opportunity to experience how they can collaborate with different disciplines in
approaching the same issue (which is one of the main goals of this thesis).
The Structure of the Teaching Framework
The course structure will be divided into lectures, on-site explorations,
assignments, and a final project. The academic semester consisting from sixteen weeks,
that will be divided in half into two main sequences. The first sequence will build up the
knowledge, skills, and techniques required to read a site in a comprehensive manner, and
also will develop students' skills in investigating sites. The second sequence will be the
opportunity for students to apply what they have learned during the first sequence.
During this course students will be introduced to weekly assignments that will
follow the four trace concepts in landscape architecture.5 In the first sequence of the
semester the instructor will require the students to follow the first three concepts (landing,
grounding, and finding) with one week to investigate each topic. The second sequence
will have two sets of assignments; the first will be very similar to the assignments during
the first sequence and the second set of the assignment will require the students to follow
“founding”, the fourth concept of the Trace Concepts, to produce programs for different
sites.
5 See appendix B.
110
It is important here to note that the choice of the site/sites to be investigated
during this course will be based on specific criteria that will meet the requirements of
different methods of site analysis discussed in Chapter Three. Each site has to have
significant qualities (natural, cultural, social, etc.) which allow different methods to take a
place in analyzing this site.
Sequence One (Weeks One to Eight)
This sequence aims at building the required knowledge, skills, and the techniques
that can assist students during his/her reading of sites. A single site will be chosen to be
investigated. Visiting one site several times has many benefits to students learning. First,
analyzing the same site allows the students to apply different methods and techniques on
the same conditions and context. This approach can help them critically evaluate these
methods and techniques to eventually be capable of deciding which method to use, how
to use it, and in what particular context. This approach will also help the students
navigate through their own value system and, in some situations, create a hybrid by
overlaying these methods to achieve more comprehensive reading of a site.
Another main benefit of visiting one site several times is what Lynch, Hack, and
Lassus emphasis about the importance of visiting a site at different times and under
different circumstances. According to them, multiple site visits will generate different
views, stories, and memories about a site that will help a designer identify and test the
visual and tactical scale in order to understand the memories, the localities, the tales, the
local legend, the stories, and the history of the site.6
6 Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack, Site Planning (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1984).
111
In each week of this sequence (from week one to six), the instructor and his/her
students will meet twice. In the first class meeting, the instructor will lecture and
introduce a specific topic and then invite the class into an open discussion. The second
meeting will be an on-site exploration. When students arrive at the site, the instructor will
give them an assignment which aims at exploring the site individually. At the end of this
class, the instructor will generate an open discussion about the site and the assignments
will be collected (students are not allowed to save copies of the assignments). In the
seventh week, students will be introduced to McHarg's method and they will be required
to do some computer-based analysis. The Instructor will also introduce midterm
assignment.
In the eighth week, students are required to visit the same site individually and
produce a comprehensive analysis for this site. Students are allowed to navigate between
the methods, the techniques, and the tools that were presented in the previous weeks.
Students are also allowed to propose new techniques and tools that were not discussed
previously in the class. At the end of this week, students are required to produce a
presentation discussing their site analysis and findings. Students will be asked to explore
what methods were used and why, tools and the techniques they used, and also the biases
they discovered. The instructor will provide students with their previous assignments to
assist students in comparing between the two sets of findings.
Sequence Two (Weeks Nine to Sixteen)
This sequence gives the students the opportunity to apply what they have learned
during the first sequence. In this sequence, the students will be divided into small groups.
Each week of the first four weeks of this sequence will focus on a different site. In the
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first meeting of each week, the instructor will meet students on a site. Each group will be
required to analyze the site and produce a comprehensive reading of it. Each group will
present their findings on the second meeting of each week.
At the end of the group presentations in the twelfth week of the semester, the
instructor will introduce the final project. The final project will require the groups to
develop a design program for each site of the four sites. Groups are also required to
support their ideas with case studies. Each week (from week thirteen to week sixteen)
will be dedicated to one site.
At the end of the semester, the instructor will require the students to generate an
open discussion about what values they developed during the course of the semester and
how their understanding about the surrounding contexts and their impacts on the reading
of a site has been transformed. Students will also be required to discuss different biases
they faced during their investigating of the sites and what approaches they followed to
critically analyze these sites with minimal understanding biases.
This course aims at providing students with the required knowledge to develop
and refine their abilities to effectively evaluate relevant natural, social, and cultural
characteristics of a site and its context. Students are expected to demonstrate an
understanding of the existing methods of site analysis, and also to demonstrate an
understanding on what might be missing in each method and identify inherent biases.
Students are expected to comprehensively explore site's issues based on research and
analysis of multiple theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental
contexts before formulating design decisions.
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Student Learning Outcomes
The most prevalent methods of site analysis and different tools of discovery for
students to use in reading sites in a comprehensive manner are presented in this chapter.
The information documented in the previous chapters provides students with the required
knowledge to develop and refine their abilities to effectively evaluate relevant natural,
social and cultural, characteristics of a site and its context. This teaching method aims at
the following students learning outcomes:
1. Students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the existing methods of site
analysis and to evaluate each method for biases and limitations.
2. Students are expected to demonstrate an awareness of their own values and biases and
to develop techniques and tools that develop their critical thinking skills.
3. Students are expected to comprehensively explore site's issues based on research and
analysis of multiple theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and
environmental contexts before formulating design decisions.
4. Students are expected to understand a set of cognitive, effective, and behavioral skills
and characteristics that support effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of
cultural contexts.
5. Students are expected to demonstrate an understanding of how different disciplines
(architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, ecology, etc.) interact in the
same discourse of site analysis in terms of their climatic, ecological, technological,
socioeconomic, public health, and cultural factors.
6. Students are expected to develop their investigative skills to be able to gather, assess,
record, apply, and raise critical questions, interpret information, consider diverse
114
points of view, and comparatively evaluate diverse environmental, social, and cultural
issues.
At the end of the proposed course, students are expected to acquire the required
knowledge and skills that can help them in comprehensively read different sites within
different context. Students are expected to generate an integrative understanding that
combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic methods
of the evaluation and the documentation of sites.
Summary
This chapter presented a proposed framework for teaching site analysis which is
based on the theories, the methods, and tools of discovery presented in the previous
chapters. The concept of the framework is inverted from Christophe Girot's “Trace
Concepts” of reading the landscape presented in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape
Architecture”. These concepts are landing, grounding, finding, and founding. Students
will be introduced into weekly assignments that will follow these concepts in order to
apply them during different site investigations.
The proposed framework is lucid and adaptable to various levels, various
purposes, and various students with different backgrounds, knowledge, and skills. Based
on the proposed teaching framework, a course for teaching site analysis for first year
students in architecture, landscape architecture, and urban planning programs was
developed. The course is divided into two main sequences. The first sequence will build
up the knowledge, the skills, and the techniques that are required to read a site in a
comprehensive manner, and also will develop students' skills in investigating sites. The
115
second sequence will be the students' opportunity to apply what they have learned during
the first sequence.
At the end of the proposed course, students are expected to acquire the required
knowledge and skills that help them comprehensively read different sites within different
context. Students are expected to generate an integrative understanding that combines the
experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic methods of the
evaluation and the documentation of sites.
116
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
The information provided in the preceding chapters demonstrates the importance
of the comprehensive reading of sites during the site analysis phase of the design process.
To draw the most comprehensive image of a site, this thesis examined different methods
used in analyzing sites over the past few decades. This research also discussed different
teaching methodologies and tools of discovery that assist instructors and students during
the reading of sites. In addition, this research acknowledges both instructors' biases and
students' biases as one of the most critical issues facing students and instructors during
the site analysis phase which influence their judgments about the site.
Based on the information, ideas, and insights discussed in this research, this thesis
presents a framework for teaching site analysis. This framework is lucid and adaptable to
various levels, various purposes, and various students with different backgrounds,
knowledge and skills. The proposed teaching framework is the structure for the designed
site analysis course which aims at assisting students to acquire the required knowledge
and skills that can help them in comprehensively reading different sites within different
contexts. Students are expected to generate an integrative understanding that combines
the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic methods of the
evaluation and the documentation of sites.
Research Summary
The findings state that although the notion of “site” has already been studied in
various methods, no single method gives a comprehensive image of a site. Each method
117
has developed a discourse oriented toward highlighting one perspective of understanding
a site and eliminates or underestimates the others.
The findings also reveal that the term “site” cannot be precisely defined, but a
whole set of variables and factors and their relations need to be considered. If each
discourse or discipline discusses the notion of a site without taking into account other
considerations of the different discourses, they will uncritically iterate their own
conceptions of sites which will leave a great deal of knowledge unarticulated.
This research uses the term “reading sites” to distinguish between traditional site
analysis and the targeted comprehensive site analysis. To read a site in a comprehensive
manner, this research argues that designers must look and comprehend the meanings and
the underlying values of a site. They also must discover the information that is visible and
invisible, and then critically understand them to obtain the most comprehensive image of
a site.
The information provided in chapter two demonstrates that the most obvious
benefits of a comprehensive approach in site analysis are the technical ones (such as
topography, climate, hydrology, and soils). The review of related literature found that the
careful analysis of sites and their contexts can lead to higher-quality built environments.
If the existing conditions of a site are poorly understood, the development of this site can
result in detrimental environmental, social, and economic impacts.1 Acknowledging
different issues about a site can help avoiding inherent site problems. Accurate
information from reading the physical features of any site leads to more suitable projects.
A designer also can orient his/her design concept based on site analysis findings; these
1 James A LaGro, Site Analysis: A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning
and Site Design, Second Edition (Wiley, 2007).
118
findings give a designer a rational scientific base for spatial organization and orientation
of buildings, structures, and outdoor spaces. These informed decisions can reduce energy
consumption for heating and cooling buildings and create more pleasant environment.
Besides the technical considerations of sites, this research argues that designers
must be aware of how a site is socially and culturally constructed. Sites feature a multiple
of interests. Conflicts between underlying goals and values must be precisely understood
and reflected through design decisions. Designers play a significant role in bridging the
gap between stakeholders and community members. The literature review presented in
chapter two points out that a designer should understand which parts of the community
are inter-connected; how small-scale things people care about reflect big changes
affecting the community system as a whole.
It was useful for the goals of this research to understand how site analysis is
approached in different methods to demonstrate an understanding of these methods, and
to be able to discover what is missing in each method and the inherent biases in each of
them. This thesis focused on the most prevalent site analysis methods in the design
professions. These methods reflect different perspectives and approaches in site analysis,
and the proponents of these methods are from various disciplines; architects, landscape
architects, planners, educators, researchers, and theorists.
The methods discussed in Chapter Three are: the Technical Method by Kevin
Lynch and Gary Hack, the Scientific Systematic Method by Ian McHarg, the Context-
Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro, and the Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus
and Richard Haag. The findings of this research acknowledge how all of the four
previous methods are significant; they all address critical aspects of the site phenomenon
119
and approach site analysis from different perspectives. They all aim at getting the most
valuable information that enriches design process toward the most suitable design. They
all recommend engaging surrounding context (social, historical, environmental, and
economical, etc.) in acknowledging a site and its characters, and they all argue that a site
cannot be understood in isolation.
Discussion
This research acknowledges the significance of the discussed methods, but it also
points at some of their limitations and biases that limit their ability to lead the designers
to a comprehensive site analysis. All of these methods have a set of values that their
proponents argue a designer should cover most of them. These values and their meanings
vary from one method to another. These methods are oriented toward different scales of
sites and use different vocabulary and they also use some similar term in various ways.
Another significant differentiation among the methods is the set of techniques and their
implementations. Although on-site exploration, for example, is a common technique
among these methods, it differs in how it should be applied from one method to another.
Although all of these methods are significant and influence the designers’
research in different fields, no single method gives a comprehensive image of the site.
Each method has developed a discourse oriented toward highlighting one perspective of
understanding the site and eliminates or underestimates the others. Having these
differences in analyzing a site among these methods allow exploring a site from different
perspectives and different angles. It also gives students a wide spectrum of tools and
vocabulary that allow them to navigate through their own value system, and in some
situations, creating a hybrid by overlaying these methods to get the most useful tools of
120
them to achieve the most comprehensive reading of a site. It is useful for students to
understand these methods, their overlapping, and their conflicts to increases students'
ability to decide which method to use, how to use it, and in what particular context.
The methods of site analysis discussed in this research presented critical ideas
about the theoretical background of issues related to the terms “site” and “site analysis”.
It was also fundamental for achieving the goals of this thesis to discuss different teaching
methods that can enhance students' learning experience and different “tools of discovery”
that can assist students in investigating sites.
Different methods can take place in teaching site analysis in order to enhance
students' learning experience; each method generates different techniques, skills, and
knowledge. As well, different tools can be used for different purposes or situations. A
site, a designer, and different resources (such as budget, time, and availability) can
determine what the most effective tools to be used in investigating sites are. It is useful
for students to demonstrate a good knowledge about the available tools, where to use
them, and in what particular context. This thesis presented some teaching methods and
tools of discovery that focus on encouraging students to be positive members in the
teaching process and to allow them bring their experiences and knowledge to the
classroom discourse.
This thesis also acknowledges both instructors' biases and students' biases as one
of the most critical issues facing students and instructors during the site analysis phase
which influence their judgments about a site. The instructor and the students must be
aware of these different biases in order to evaluate site issues in a critical manner. This
self-awareness will generate an active dialogue between students and their instructor in
121
order to minimize the effects of different biases and to open new perspectives in
approaching site issues.
The proposed teaching framework, in its concept and structure, aims at
emphasizing the awareness of these different qualities and issues (in the methods of site
analysis, the teaching methods, and the teaching biases discussed in this thesis). This
awareness can increase the opportunity to understand different sites in an objective
perspective that aims at achieving the most suitable intervention that fits within the given
context. The proposed framework, through its systematic process, argues that the design
program should be generated from the site itself and based on the findings of reading the
site. Another critical concept that this teaching framework points at is the cooperation
between different design disciplines (architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning,
ecology...etc.) within the same investigation. The proposed framework gives students the
opportunity to get closers to different disciplines engaged in the design process. The
argument here is that this approach will create more open discussions that generate more
critical ideas and insights; which eventually will enhance the decision making process
and students’ knowledge and skills.
Future Research
The politics of sites is one of the topics that this research did not cover.
Understanding the political forces and their impacts on forming the community is very
fundamental. Discussing this topic within its wide dimensions will need an extensive
research and review for related literature and legal documents in various discourses.
Based on the limited time of this research and its core targets and goals, this research
acknowledged this issue in general without exploring it in depth. Future research should
122
discuss the political impacts on the decision-making process and also how political trends
contribute to forming communities and transforming social and cultural values.
This thesis also presented a framework based on the existing methodologies of
site analysis, and it is not proposing a new method. This thesis is more oriented toward
the teaching of site analysis rather than the professional practice. Future research related
to this thesis would aim at structuring a new methodology of site analysis that gives a
comprehensive reading of site taking onto account all the critical issue that existing
methods have discussed within one comprehensive method.
Another critical piece that needs more research and discussion is the inherent
individual's biases which are understood by individual's cultures. As mentioned earlier,
this thesis briefly acknowledged instructors' and students' biases as one of the most
critical issues students face during the site analysis phase. Teaching biases is a
complicated topic and, in many situations, cannot be avoided. Future research might aim
at developing new teaching methods that are oriented toward limiting the effects of
different biases can be useful tools to enrich the learning experience and to demonstrate a
successful student learning.
As noted earlier, the choice of the site/sites to be investigated during this course
will be based on specific criteria that will meet the requirements of different methods of
site analysis discussed in Chapter Three. Each site has to have significant qualities
(natural, cultural, social, etc.) which allow different methods to take place in analyzing
this site. Future research can also include evaluating different findings about the different
sites (with different scales and qualities) that are investigated during different version of
the proposed course to understand and compare the results generated by teaching the
123
course in different approaches. This evaluation can help the instructor decide on the
limitations and the potentials of each approach in order to enhance students’ learning and
develop the teaching strategies used during the proposed course.
124
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APPENDIX A
THE USE OF THE TERMS “SITE”, “SITE ANALYSIS”, AND “READ” OVER
TIME
Use over time of: “site”: Google Books Ngram viewer, 2013.
Use over time of: “site analysis”: Google Books Ngram viewer, 2013.
Use over time of: “read”: Google Books Ngram viewer, 2013.
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APPENDIX B
READING SITES: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH FOR SITE ANALYSIS
COURSE SYLLABUS
A site is a set of environmental and social relations that form human communities
and influences human actions and behaviors. Each site has its unique set of historical,
natural, and cultural values that determines how a site is evaluated. According to
Christophe Girot in “The Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture”, a designer
understands a site by overlaying different analytical layers and recognizing the visible
and the invisible forces. In this context, designers should go beyond the tangible forces;
tangible forces provide designers with a partial image that does not reflect what is in a
site and how it should be transformed. On the other hand, sites have problems and issues
that are highly interrelated. In many situations, the solution for one problem requires
designers to solve other site's issues. Few, if any, issues can be treated effectively in
isolation from other site's issues. According to Girot, the designer understands a site by
overlaying different analytical layers and recognizing the visible and the invisible forces.1
The careful analysis of sites and sites’ context can lead to higher-quality built
environments. If the sites' existing conditions are poorly understood, sites development
can result in detrimental environmental, social, and economic impacts.2
1 Christopher Girot, the Four Trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999). 2 James LaGro, Site Analysis, A Contextual Approach to Sustainable Land Planning and Site Design (John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2008).
Introduction
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This course aims at providing students with the required knowledge to develop
and refine students' ability to effectively evaluate relevant natural, social, and cultural
characteristics of a site and its context. Students are expected to demonstrate an
understanding of the existing methods of site analysis, and to evaluate each method to be
able to discover what is missing in each method and what the inherited biases in each of
them are. Students are expected to comprehensively explore site's issues based on
research and analysis of multiple theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and
environmental contexts before formulating design decisions. At the end of this course,
students are expected to acquire the required knowledge and skills that help them
comprehensively read different sites within different context. Students are expected to
generate an integrative understanding that combines the experience-based methods of on-
site explorations and the academic methods of the evaluation and the documentation of
sites.
This course presents the most prevalent methods of site analysis and different
tools of discovery to help students read sites in a comprehensive manner. The methods,
tools and technique targeted by this course will provide students with the required
knowledge to develop and refine students' abilities to effectively evaluate relevant
natural, social and cultural characteristics of a site and its context. By the end of this
course students should be able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the existing methods of site analysis and to
evaluate each method for biases and limitations.
Student Learning Outcomes
Course Objectives
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2. Demonstrate an awareness of their own values and biases and to develop techniques
and tools that develop their critical thinking skills.
3. Comprehensively explore site's issues based on research and analysis of multiple
theoretical, social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental contexts before
formulating design decisions.
4. Understand a set of cognitive, effective, and behavioral skills and characteristics that
support effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of cultural contexts.
5. Understand how different disciplines (architecture, landscape architecture, urban
planning, ecology, etc.) interact in the same discourse of site analysis in terms of
their climatic, ecological, technological, socioeconomic, public health, and cultural
factors.
6. Develop their investigative skills to be able to gather, assess, record, apply, and raise
critical questions, interpret information, consider diverse points of view, and
comparatively evaluate diverse environmental, social, and cultural issue.
The course structure will be divided into lectures, on-site explorations,
assignments and a final project. The academic semester consists of sixteen weeks which
will be divided in half into two main sequences. The first sequence will build up the
knowledge and the techniques required to read a site in a comprehensive manner, and
also will develop students' skills in investigating sites. The second sequence will be the
students' opportunity to apply what they have learned during the first sequence.
The Structure of the Course
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Sequence One (Weeks One to Eight)
In each week of this sequence (from week one to six), the instructor and the
students will meet twice. In the first meeting, the instructor will lecture and introduce a
specific topic and then invite the students into an open discussion. The second meeting of
each week will be an on-site exploration. In the seventh week, the students will be
required to do some computer-based analysis. The Instructor also will introduce midterm
assignment. On the eighth week, the students will be required to visit the same site
individually and produce a comprehensive analysis for this site.
Sequence Two (Weeks Nine to Sixteen)
In this sequence, students will be divided into small groups. Each week of the first
four weeks of this sequence will focus on a different site. In the first meeting of each
week, the instructor will meet the students on a site. Each group will be required to
analyze the site and produce a comprehensive reading of it. Each group will present their
findings on the second meeting of each week. At the end of the group presentations on
the twelfth week of the semester the instructor will introduce the final project.
• Attendance: You are expected to be on time for the class and prepared to fully
participate.
• Readings: Each week, you will be assigned to read particular texts about a
specific topic. The readings will be emailed and/or posted on the course website at
least three days before the class.
• Field assignments: These assignments will be completed on the site individually.
We will visit the same site several times. The instructor will present each
Requirements
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assignment to the students at the beginning of the class. Assignments will be
collected at the end of the class, and the students are not allowed to keep a copy of
the assignments for themselves.
• Midterm project: Each student will be required to produce a comprehensive
reading of the same site that we were exploring in the previous weeks. Students
will also be required to present their findings to the class.
• Site analysis and presentation assignments: These assignments will be completed
on the site in small groups. Each week, we will visit a different site. The instructor
will present each assignment to the students at the beginning of the class. Each
group will be required to analyze the site and to produce a comprehensive reading
of it. Each group will present their findings during the second class of each week.
• Final project: Students will be divided into small groups. The final project will
require the groups to develop a design program for each site of the four sites.
Groups are required to support their ideas with case studies. Each week (from
week thirteen to week sixteen) will be dedicated for one site.
Date Topic Assignment Readings Week 1 - Introduction
- Syllabus + Schedule - Survey - What is a Site?
Assignment 1: Body Measurements
TBD
Week 2 - What is Site Analysis? - Why is important to understand site in a comprehensive manner? - Site visit: Landing
Assignment 2: Landing TBD
Course Schedule
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Week 3 - Tools of Discovery - Site visit: Grounding and Finding
Assignment 3: Sensual Qualities of Sites
TBD
Week 4 - The Experiential Method by Bernard Lassus and Richard Haag - Site visit: Grounding and Finding
Assignment 4: Visual Qualities of Sites
TBD
Week 5 The Technical Method by Kevin Lynch and Gary Hack - Site visit: Grounding and Finding
Assignment 5: Cultural Attributes and Issues
TBD
Week 6 - The Context-Sensitive Method by James A. LaGro - Site visit: Grounding and Finding
Assignment 6: Social Attributes and Issues
TBD
Week 7 - The Scientific Systematic Method by Ian McHarg - Computer-based analysis: Grounding and Finding - Introduction for the Midterm assignment
Assignment 7: Environmental Attributes and Issues of sites
TBD
Week 8 Midterm DUE: In-class presentation
None
Week 9 - On-site Exploration. - Site One Analysis Presentation
Landing, Grounding, and Finding Assignment: DUE: In-class presentation
None
Week 10 - On-site Exploration. Site Two Analysis Presentation
Landing, Grounding, and Finding Assignment: DUE: In-class presentation
None
Week 11 - On-site Exploration. - Site Three Analysis Presentation
Landing, Grounding, and Finding Assignment: DUE: In-class presentation
None
Week 12 - On-site Exploration. - Site Four Analysis Presentation
Landing, Grounding, and Finding Assignment: DUE: In-class presentation
None
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Week 13 - No class. - Site One Programming Presentation
Founding: DUE: In-class presentation
None
Week 14 - No class. -Site Two Programming Presentation
Founding: DUE: In-class presentation
None
Week 15 - No class. Site Three Programming Presentation
Founding: DUE: In-class presentation
None
Week 16 - No class. Site Four Programming Presentation
Founding: DUE: In-class presentation
None
Attendance and participation 10%
Field assignments: 20%
Midterm project: 20%
Site analysis and presentation assignments: 25%
Final project: 25%
Absences, tardiness, assignments and papers
Except for documented health or disability reasons and family emergencies, or
other life incidents, I will not accept excuses for absences, tardiness, missed or papers not
submitted.
Please contact the instructor as soon as possible if you know that you might miss a class
or not meet a deadline so that we can discuss arrangements.
Policies, rules, and regulations
Grading scheme
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Classes begin and end on time. Two unexcused absences will be allowed before
an academic penalty of one half-grade reduction is imposed. Papers, projects, or any
other required assignments that are turned in late will receive one half grade reductions
for every day they are late. Any student who fails to turn in a papers or an assignment
will receive either a zero for the work missed.
Plagiarism
Sadly, plagiarism is a serious concern in academia. Students are expected to
know, understand, and comply with the ethical standards of the university, including
rules against plagiarism. Plagiarism is the use of another person’s ideas or words without
acknowledgement. The incorporation of another person’s work into yours requires
appropriate identifications and acknowledgement. Instructors expect students to be
familiar with and use proper citation formats, such as MLA, Chicago Manual of Style,
APA, etc.
The following are considered to be forms of plagiarism when the source is not
noted: word-for-word copying of another person’s ideas or words; the “mosaic”
(interspersing your own words here and there while, in essence, copying another’s work);
the paraphrase (the rewriting of another’s work, while still using their basic ideas or
theories); fabrication (inventing sources); submission of another’s work as your own; and
neglecting quotation marks when including direct quotes.
The use of precedent in design projects is not just legitimate, but oftentimes
necessary and will greatly enhance the quality of your projects. Project precedents will
need to be referenced properly, similar to textual sources. Instructors will report cases of
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plagiarism to the appropriate departmental, college, and university committees and assign
a failing grade to the paper or the assignment.
If there are any questions or uncertainty regarding plagiarism and proper
referencing practices, please contact any of the course instructors immediately.
Decorum
The following ground rules apply to all students and are designed to ensure a
classroom environment conducive to learning for all students:
1. Pagers, beepers, cellular telephones, and handheld internet devices must remain
deactivated throughout lectures, discussions and presentations. Outside of those times and
within studio, they should only be used for communications pertinent to or necessary for
the studio work.
2. Students who engage in disruptive classroom behavior will be reported to the
concerned authorities at the university. Disruptive behavior includes, but is not limited to,
arriving late to class without explanation or apology; leaving class early without
explanation or apology; reading a newspaper or magazine; reading a book with no
connection to the content of the course; engaging in prolonged private conversations;
sleeping in class; eating, drinking, and/or gum chewing; passing notes; harassment or
verbal or physical threats to another student or to the instructor; failing to deactivate
pagers, beepers, cellular phones, and/or handheld internet devices; bringing children to
class.
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APPENDIX C
SAMPLES OF THE PROPOSED ASSIGNMENTS
Intent
This assignment is the fourth assignment in the reading sites series.
In this assignment, you are expected to analyze one or more of the site's visual qualities
during your on-site exploration. It is important for a designer to understand different
visual qualities of a site in order to generate a realistic projection of visual elements that
represent the living environment as its users perceive it.
Requirements
Students are required to explore the visual qualities of the site in depth in order to
discover and understand what these qualities are, how these qualities are constructed and
maintained, and why these qualities draw the structures, the organization, and the identity
of the site.
Format
Students are expected to apply different visual means to record, document,
measure, explore, and discover different visual qualities through: diagrams, mental maps,
drawings, sketches, photographs, matrices, and collage. This assignment must be
completed during the class period and it must be submitted to the instructor at the end of
the class. (Students are not allowed to keep copies of the assignment for themselves).
Assignment 4: The Visual Qualities of Sites
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Intent
This assignment is the students' opportunity to apply what they have learned
during the first sequence. Each student is required to visit the same site we have been
exploring during the last few weeks in order to produce a comprehensive analysis of this
site. Students are allowed to navigate between the methods, the techniques, and the tools
that were presented in the previous weeks. Students are also allowed to propose new
techniques and tools that were not discussed previously in the class. At the end of this
week, each student is required to produce a presentation discussing his/her analysis
findings and pointing at what methods, tools and the techniques he/she used during
his/her reading of the site and why they decided to use them.
Requirements
Students are required to analyze different site's values and forces such as (but not
limited to) the following:
Aesthetic Values (visual and sensual):
• Spatial organization and relationships • Visual quality • Visibility • Focal points and landmarks • Memories • Place Identity • Underlying values and meanings
Cultural-Social Values
• History • Social structure • Politics • Public infrastructure • Demographics • Economy
Midterm Assignment: Landing, Grounding, and Finding.
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• Land use • Behavior system • Utilities • Circulation • Neighborhood and building characters
Environmental Values (physical and biological)
• Geography • Topography • Hydrology • Geology and soil • Climate • Vegetation • Wildlife • Water • Habitability • Natural hazards
Format
Students are expected to apply different means to record, document, measure,
explore, and discover different site's values through: diagrams, mental maps, drawings,
sketches, photographs, matrices and collage. This assignment must be presented as in
class presentation. Make sure that your presentation reflects an integrative understanding
that combines the experience-based methods of on-site exploration and the academic
methods of the evaluation and the documentation of sites.