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II. The Living World
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A. Ecosystem StructureBiological populations and communities; ecological niches; interactions among species; keystone species; species diversity and edge effects; major terrestrial and aquatic biomesB. Energy FlowPhotosynthesis and cellular respiration; food webs and trophic levels; ecological pyramidsC. Ecosystem DiversityBiodiversity; natural selection; evolution; ecosystem servicesD. Natural Ecosystem ChangeClimate shifts; species movement; ecological successionE. Natural Biogeochemical CyclesCarbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, water, conservation of matter
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THE NATURE OF ECOLOGY
Ecology is a study of connections in nature. How organisms
interact with one another and with their nonliving environment.
Figure 3-2Figure 3-2
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Species Diversity and Niche Structure: Different Species Playing Different Roles
Species diversity: the number of different species it contains (species richness) combined with the abundance of individuals within each of those species (species evenness).
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Indicator Species: Biological Smoke Alarms
-early warnings of damage to a community or an ecosystem.
Ex. Presence or absence of trout species because they are sensitive to temperature and oxygen levels.
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Keystone Species: Major Players
-determine the types and numbers of other species in a community, helping to sustain it.
Figures 7-4 and 7-5Figures 7-4 and 7-5
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Foundation Species: Other Major Players
-can create and enhance habitats which benefits other species in a community.
Ex. Elephants push over, break, or uproot trees, creating forest openings promoting grass growth for other species to utilize.
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Population-A group of the same species living w/in a particular area.
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Community-All the population s in an area.
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Ecosystem- All nonliving (abiotic) and living (biotic) components
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Fig. 3-2, p. 51
Communities
Subatomic Particles
Atoms
Molecules
Protoplasm
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ systems
Organisms
Populations
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere
Earth
Planets
Solar systems
Galaxies
Universe
Organisms
Realm of ecology
Ecosystems
Biosphere
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Habitat The place where an organism or a
population lives.
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Niche The total way of life or role of a
species in an ecosystem. All the physical, chemical, and
biological conditions a species needs to live & reproduce in an ecosystem.
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Species Interactions:Symbiosis
Parasitism –when 1 species (parasite) feeds on part of another species (host) by living on or in it
Commensalism – benefits one species but doesn't harm or help the other
Mutualism – both species benefit
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Parasites: Sponging Off of Others Although parasites can harm their hosts,
they can promote community biodiversity. Some parasites live in host (micororganisms,
tapeworms). Some parasites live outside host (fleas, ticks,
mistletoe plants, sea lampreys). Some have little contact with host (dump-
nesting birds like cowbirds, some duck species)
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Mutualism: Win-Win Relationship
Two species can interact in ways that benefit both of them.
Figure 7-9Figure 7-9
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Commensalism: Using without Harming
-helps one species but has little or no effect on the other.
Figure 7-10Figure 7-10
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Predator An organisms that captures & feeds on
parts or all of another animal.
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Prey An organisms that is captured & serves
as a source of food for another animal.
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Cycle See graph (page 203 and 204)
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Decomposition-When organisms die or release waste Bacteria break down and return the chemicals back to the soil.
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BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE ON LAND
Figure 5-9Figure 5-9
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BIOMES: CLIMATE AND LIFE ON LAND
Biome type is determined by precipitation, temperature and soil type
Figure 5-10Figure 5-10
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PhotosynthesisProducers: Basic Source of All Food
producers capture sunlight to produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis:
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Fig. 3-17, p. 64
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat Heat Heat
Detritivores (decomposers and detritus feeders)
First Trophic Level
Second TrophicLevel
Third Trophic Level
Fourth Trophic Level
Solar energy
Producers(plants)
Primary consumers(herbivores)
Secondary consumers(carnivores)
Tertiary consumers
(top carnivores)
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Food Webs/Chains-how energy & nutrients move through the ecosystem
Arrows – point from the producer to the consumer
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Energy Flow in an Ecosystem: Losing Energy in Food Chains and Webs
Ecological efficiency: percentage of useable energy from one trophic level to the next.
Figure 3-19Figure 3-19
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10% Rule
We assume that 90% of the energy at each energy level is lost because the organism uses the energy. (heat)
It is more efficient to eat lower on the energy pyramid. You get more out of it!
This is why top predators are few in number & vulnerable to extinction.
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Producers-use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis (some bacteria) to manufacture its food.
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Primary Consumer (herbivore)-feed directly on all or parts of plants.
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Secondary Consumer (carnivore)-feed only on primary consumers. Most are animals, but some are plants (Venus fly-trap).
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Tertiary Consumer (carnivore)-feed on animal-eating animals. Ex. hawks, lions, bass, and sharks.
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Quaternary Consumer (carnivore)-feeds on tertiary consumers. Ex. humans.
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Decomposers and Detrivores
Decomposers: Recycle nutrients in ecosystems. Detrivores: Insects or other scavengers that feed on
wastes or dead bodies.Figure 3-13Figure 3-13
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-the many forms of life found on the Earth. “Wildness”
Genetic Diversity – the variety of genetic make-up w/in a single species
Species Diversity – the variety of species in different habitats on the Earth
Biodiversity
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Biological Evolution
-has led to the variety of species we find on the earth today.
Figure 4-2Figure 4-2
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EVOLUTION, NATURAL SELECTION, AND ADAPTATION
- the change in a population’s genetic makeup through successive generations.
genetic variability Mutations: random changes in the DNA that
can be inherited by offspring.
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-process where plants & animals of a particular area are replaced by other more complex species over time.
Succession
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Primary Succession -begins with a lifeless area where there is no soil (ex. bare rock). Soil formation begins with lichens or moss.
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Stages Land – rock lichen small shrubs large
shrubs small trees large trees
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Water – bare bottom small/few underwater vegetation temporary pond and prairie forest and swamp
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Secondary succession - begins where the natural community has been disturbed, removed, or destroyed, but soil or bottom sediments remain.
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Pioneer Communities Lichens and moss.
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Climax Communities-area dominated by a few, long-lived plant species.
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Fig. 3-7, p. 55
Nitrogencycle
Biosphere
Heat in the environment
Heat Heat Heat
Phosphoruscycle
Carboncycle
Oxygencycle
Watercycle
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CARBON CYCLE
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Effects of Human Activities on Carbon Cycle
-We add excess CO2 to the atmosphere through:
Burning fossil fuels. Clearing vegetation
faster than it is replaced.
Figure 3-28Figure 3-28
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Phosphorous Cycle
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Effects of Human Activities on the Phosphorous Cycle
1. We remove large amounts of phosphate from the earth to make fertilizer.
2. We reduce phosphorous in tropical soils by clearing forests.
3. We add excess phosphates to aquatic systems from runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers.
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Nitrogen Cycle
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Effects of Human Activities on the Nitrogen Cycle
1. Adding gases that contribute to acid rain.
2. Contaminating ground water from nitrate ions in inorganic fertilizers.
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Nitrogen Fixation- bacteria convert N2 gas to ammonia (NH3) that can be used by plants.
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Nitrification- Ammonia is converted to nitrite (NO2), then to nitrate(N03)
- Plants use N02 and NO3 to make DNA, amino acids and proteins.
Assimilation
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Ammonification- decomposing bacteria convert wastes, and dead bodies into ammonia.
Denitrification-Nitrate ions and nitrite ions are converted into nitrous oxide gas and nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria
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The Sulfur Cycle
Figure 3-32Figure 3-32
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Effects of Human Activities on the Sulfur Cycle
We add sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere by: Burning coal and oil Refining sulfur containing petroleum. Convert sulfur-containing metallic ores into
free metals such as copper, lead, and zinc releasing sulfur dioxide into the environment.
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Water cycle