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HUMAN CULTURE PART I
The crucial differences which distinguish
human societies and human beings are
not biological. They are cultural.
-Ruth Benedict
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Human Culture Part I
• The Basics
• Cultural Landscapes
• Cultural Ecology
• Popular and Folk Culture
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THE BASICS Return to Table of Contents
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Cultural Geography
• Geography: the study of where things are
• Culture: the body of customary beliefs, social forms and material traits of a group of people
• Cultural Geography: the study of human cultures in relationship to their location or environment
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What is Cultural Geography?
• the study of cultural products and norms, and their variations across and relations to spaces and places
• focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another
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What is Cultural Geography?
• focuses on cultural phenomena that may vary or remain constant from place to place
• explains how humans function spatially
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Culture is…
• “…that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any capabilities and habits acquired by a man as a member of society.” (Taylor 1877)
• “…the configuration of learned behavior and the results of behavior.” (Linton 1945)
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Culture is…
…learned behavior passed on by imitation, instruction and example.
…almost entirely relative. Proper behavior changes from culture to culture.
…something we seldom notice until we experience a culture different from our own.
…not taught in the US and so we have little shared culture.
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What is Culture?
• What are its elements?
• language
• religion
• food
• clothing
• art
• music
• rituals and customs
• How is it transferred?
• parents to children
• schooling
• television, films, radio and internet
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Cultural Differences for example:
• Western Culture
• tend to see categories, distinctions and separateness
• think from parts to the whole
• Eastern Culture
• tend to see continuity and connectedness
• think from the whole to the parts
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World Cultures Model
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• maps
• human adaptation to habitat
• human transformation of the earth
• sense of place
• spatial organization and interdependence
• central place theory
• megalopolis
Seven Cultural Geography Ideas That Changed the World
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The Geographic Importance of Culture
Geographers study culture because it leaves dramatic physical and cultural imprints on the
earth.
• language: a crystal ball into culture
• religion: strongest determinant of ethics
• nationalism and borders
• material culture: tools, clothes, toys, etc
• architecture: suburban garages vs. earlier porches
• religion: affects societal choices, creates sacred space
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What kinds of cultural values are reflected in these American
houses?
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Where are we? What values are reflected in each? Relation to physical environment?
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Where are we? What values are reflected in each? Relation to physical environment?
Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey
Timber House, Switzerland
Suburban Home, Chicago Yurt on Mongolian Steppe
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Cultural Geography
Cultural geography focuses on where cultural ideas and
practices developed, how and where they diffused, and how
they affect landscape, human
perception and human–environment
relations.
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CULTURAL LANDSCAPES Return to Table of Contents
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Cultural Landscapes
• The cultural landscape is the visible, material landscape that cultural groups create in inhabiting the earth.
• Cultures shape landscapes out of the raw materials provided by the earth.
• Each landscape uniquely reflects the culture that created it.
• Much can be learned about a culture by carefully observing its created landscape.
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Reflect Basic Beliefs
• Some geographers regard landscape study as geography’s central interest.
• It reflects the most basic strivings of humankind.
• shelter
• food
• clothing
• It contains evidence about the origin, spread and development of cultures.
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What kinds of cultural values are reflected in this landscape?
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What do cultural landscapes tell us?
• accumulation of human artifacts, old and new
• They can reveal much about a past forgotten by present inhabitants.
• Landscapes also reveal messages about present-day inhabitants and cultures.
• They reflect our tastes, values, aspirations and fears in tangible form.
• The spatial organizations of settlements and the architectural forms of structures are expressions of people’s values and beliefs.
• They can serve as a means to study the nonmaterial aspects of culture.
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Examples • how architecture reflects
the past and present values of landscapes
• examples of centrally located, tall structures built of steel, brick or stone
• examples of medieval European cathedrals and churches that dominated the landscape
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Cultural Landscape Aspects
• Most geographic studies have focused on three principal aspects of landscape.
• Settlement forms - Describe the spatial arrangement of buildings, roads and other features people construct while inhabiting an area
• Land-division patterns - reveal the way people divide the land for economic and social uses
• land division of small and large farms
• urban housing and street patterns
• Architecture
• North America’s different building styles
• regional and cultural differences
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Examples
Both San Francisco (L) and Tokyo (R) are laid out on a comparatively high-relief urban
topography but their street patterns differ markedly. As a result, moving around in these
two cities is quite different.
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CULTURAL ECOLOGY Return to Table of Contents
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Cultural Ecology
• Ecology is a two-way relationship between an organism and its physical environment.
• Cultural ecology is the study of the cause-and-effect interplay between cultures and the physical environment.
• Ecosystem entails a functioning ecological system where biological and cultural Homo sapiens live and interact with the physical environment.
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Cultural Ecology
Culture is the human method of meeting physical environmental challenges.
• adaptive system
• assumes relevant plant and animal adaptations
• facilitates long-term, successful, non-genetic human adaptation to nature and environmental change
• adaptive strategy that provides necessities of life: food, clothing, shelter, defense
• No two cultures employ the same strategy, even within the same physical environment.
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Four Schools of Thought Developed by Cultural Ecology Geographers
• Environmental Determinism
• Possibilism
• Environmental Perception
• Humans as Modifiers of Earth
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I. Environmental Determinism
• developed during first part of 20th century
• The physical environment provides a dominant force in shaping cultures.
• Humans are clay to be molded by nature.
• For example, believed mountain people, because they live in rugged terrain, are
• backward.
• conservative.
• unimaginative.
• freedom loving.
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I. Environmental Determinism • Believed desert dwellers
• are likely to believe in one god.
• live under the rule of tyrants.
• Believed temperate climates produce
• inventiveness.
• industriousness.
• democracy.
• Believed coastlands with fjords produce navigators and fishermen.
• They overestimated the role of the environment.
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Is NYC environmentally determined?
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What about Bali, Indonesia?
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II. Possibilism
• Took the place of determinism in the 1920s.
• Believed cultural heritage is at least as important as physical environment in affecting human behavior.
• Believed people, not environmental factors, are the primary architects of culture.
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II. Possibilism
• The physical environment offers numerous ways for a culture to develop.
• People make cultural trait choices from the possibilities offered by their environment to satisfy their needs.
• High technology societies are less influenced by physical environment.
• Geographer Jim Norwin warns control over the environment may be an illusion because of possible future climatic changes.
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III. Environmental Perception
• Each person’s or cultural group’s mental images of the physical environment are shaped by knowledge, ignorance, experience, values and emotions.
• Environmental perceptionists say the choices people make depend more on how they perceive the land’s character than on its actual character.
• People make decisions based on distortions of reality regarding their surrounding physical environment.
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III. Environmental Perception
• Geomancy: traditional system of land-use planning dictating that certain environmental settings, perceived by the sages as auspicious, should be chosen as sites for houses, villages, temples or graves
• an East Asian world view and art
• affected the location and morphology of urban places in states such as China and Korea
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IV. Humans as Modifiers of the Earth
• another facet of cultural ecology
• in a sense, the opposite of environmental determinism
• Human modification varies from one culture to another.
• Geographers seek alternative, less destructive modes of environmental modification.
• The Judeo-Christian tradition tends to regard environmental modification as divinely approved.
• Other more cautious groups take care not to offend the forces of nature.
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POPULAR AND FOLK CULTURE Return to Table of Contents
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Cultural Characteristics
Cultural characteristics are part of everyday life.
They are the ideas and themes that the group teaches to all members.
These same characteristics can also link or divide a region.
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Language, religion and ethnic heritage are examples of cultural characteristics.
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Important Terms
● Custom - frequent repetition of an act until it becomes characteristic of a group of people
● Habit - repetitive act performed by an individual
● Folk Culture - traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation
● Popular (Pop) Culture - found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in personal characteristics
● Material Culture - physical objects produced by a culture in order to meet its material needs: food, clothing, shelter, arts and recreation (Carl Sauer, Berkeley, 1930s – 1970s)
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The Forbidden City Beijing, China
woman with oxcart, Myanmar
Examples: Folk and Popular Culture
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Beijing, China
Examples: Folk and Popular Culture
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Example: Marlboro Man in Egypt
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Example: Coca Cola in Panama
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Example: US Households Buying Coke and Pepsi
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Small towns in different regions of the eastern US have
different combinations of five main house types.
Example: US House Types by Region
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Folk Culture
rapidly changing and/or disappearing throughout
much of the world
Turkish Camel Market
Guatemalan Market
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Folk Culture
•stable and close knit
•usually a rural community
•tradition controls
•resistant to change
•buildings erected without architect or blueprint using locally available materials
•anonymous origins … diffuses slowly through migration
•develops over time
•clustered distributions: isolation/lack of interaction breed uniqueness and ties to physical environment
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Effects on Landscape: usually of limited scale and scope
Agriculture: fields, terraces, grain storage
Dwellings: historically created from local materials (wood, brick, stone, skins), often uniquely and traditionally arranged, always functionally tied to physical environment
Example: Folk Architecture
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Example: Folk Architecture
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Example: Folk Food
How did such
differences develop?
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Annual hog production is influenced by religious taboos against pork consumption in Islam and other religions. The highest production is in China, which is largely Buddhist.
Example: Hog Production and Food Cultures
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North American Folk Culture Regions
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Taboos
Washing a Cow in the Ganges
...restrictions on behavior imposed by social custom
Food Taboos:
Jews – can’t eat animals that chew cud, have cloven feet; can’t mix meat and milk, or eat fish lacking fins or scales
Muslims – no pork
Hindus – no cows (used as oxen in monsoons)
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CONTINUED IN HUMAN CULTURE PART II
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