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HOW HAVE FEDERAL LAWS BEEN EFFECTIVE?
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Escalation in drug-related incarceration rates
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Incarcerations have mostly been for Posession
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NOTE: The Increase in Incarceration rates for Drug-related Crime is International
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However, availability of many “Illicit: substances appear unchanged
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Cocaine production seems unaffected
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Cocaine prices seem stable
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A consideration:Is the War aimed in the right directions?
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Despite the Laws People Still Use
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How do we measure use of Psychoactive substances?
• A difficult issue-– Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration (SAMHSA): measures drug use prevalence by sponsoring the “National Survey on Drug us and Health” (NSDUH)- (formerly known as the “National Household survey on Drug Use”)• drug use info regarding people of 12 yrs and older
– Data from households from every state and across many demographic variables..n= 68,736 survey respondents
Appendix A. NSDUH methodology
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Example-Drug Use Stats- NSDUH a SAMHSA study
(substance abuse and mental Health Services Administration)
Link to 2008 SAMHSA Report
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NSDUH 2008 vs. Our ClassOur Class College Students (2008)
NSDUHin last year last month in Last Year Last month
Alcohol 91.8% 85.7% 70.6% 50.7%MJ 67.3% 59.1% 30.9% 16.5%Hall 24.2% 6.1 % 8.2% 1.7%Stimulants 22.4 % 14.2% 5.8% 1.5%XTC 4.0% 0.0 % 5.1% 1.3%
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Drug Use by Students in our class- Cont’
N=49 Ever in the last year?
Percentages/ (Freq)
In the past month? In the past week?
Today?
Alcohol 91.8 /45 85.7/42 71.4 /35 8.1 /4
Marijuana 67.3 /33 59.1/ (29 44.8 /22 10.2 /5
Hallucinogens 24.4 /12 6.1/3 2.0/1 0- THANK-YOU!
Cocaine or amphetamines
22.4 /11 14.2/7 8.1/4 0
XTC 4.0/2 0 0 0
Opiates 26.5 /13 14.2/7 6.1/3 4.0/2
Benzodiazepines 20.4 /10 16.3/8 8.1/4 6.1/3
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ouch!!!
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Legal control of drug use has cost a lot
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Have U.S. Drug Policies worked to reduce drug use or availability??
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Complexities of Drug use, Drug abuse and DRUG TAKING BEHAVIOR
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Is there a drug abuse problem in our country?
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Does Use Mean Abuse?
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The Spectrum of Use
• Use – Periodic non-problematic use• Misuse – Periodic use• Abuse – A pattern of misuse• Dependence – Compulsive problematic use,
often with physiological dependence
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Use
• Many drugs can be used relatively safely• Most people who use drugs do not develop
problems; however, this varies with the type of drug
• Drugs are used for many reasons– Social– Religious– Coping– Experimentation
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Misuse
• Periodic circumscribed negative consequences– College students and alcohol– “It only happened once.”– Sometimes the consequences are catastrophic
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What is drug abuse?
• The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual – APA guidelines for diagnostic evaluation of psychological problems– “Substance-related disorders”
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DSM-IV:Abuse
• Use-related Failure to fulfill obligations• Use in Physically dangerous situations• Use-related Legal problems• Use-related Social/Psychological problems– *Dependence criteria not met– It is assumed that an individual meeting the
criteria for “drug dependence” have already met the criteria for abuse
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What is Drug Dependence?
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DSM-IV:Dependence
• Tolerance
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Tolerance
• After regular use, a larger dose is required to produce a given effect
• A given dose of the drug has less effect upon repetition
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DSM-IV:Dependence
• Tolerance• Withdrawal syndromes
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Physical Dependence
• An adaptive state produced by repeated use of a drug which manifests itself by intense physiological disturbances (withdrawal syndrome) when use of the drug is halted (abstinence).
• Withdrawal syndrome- a constellation of symptoms that occur when an individual stops using the drug to which dependence has developed. Symptoms typically in reverse direction of the effects caused by the drug (considered a “rebound effect.”)
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Withdrawal Syndromes
Example: Opiate drugs tend to reduce body temp and decrease activity of the
digestive system.
Opiate withdrawal syndromes include fever, and diarrhea
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For some drugs a withdrawal Syndrome may be associated with
Psychological dependence
• A condition characterized by intense drive or cravings for a drug experienced during periods ob abstinence.– Abstinence: periods of time when the individual has
stopped using
• Now considered the most prominent factor in relapse.– Relapse: return to drug use after a period of abstinence
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DSM-IV:Dependence
• Tolerance• Withdrawal• Taking more than intended
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DSM-IV:Dependence
• Tolerance• Withdrawal• Taking more than intended• Unable to successfully cut down or control
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DSM-IV:Dependence
• Tolerance• Withdrawal• Taking more than intended• Unable to cut down or control• Excessive time spent re: drug– Thinking about, talking about, acquiring etc…
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DSM-IV:Dependence
• Tolerance• Withdrawal• Taking more than intended• Unable to cut down or control• Excessive time spent re drug• Important activities given up– Loss of interest/motivation/ability
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DSM-IV:Dependence
• Tolerance• Withdrawal• Taking more than intended• Unable to cut down or control• Excessive time spent re drug• Important activities given up• Continuing use despite problems
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How Large is the Problem? Depends how it is measured… Treatment Statistics
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Economic Indications
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SO ?
• Whatever your perspective on drug use and abuse, its difficult to argue that drug use is in no way problematic.
• Especially when considering the harmful effects of drug addiction/Abuse to the individual and to society.
• Yet the issues are complex and simple approaches are clearly less than optimally effective
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Yet there is ample rationale to study drug taking behavior
• It is a social problem• Many drugs can cause physical harm to the
individual• General Insight into behavior• Insight into the functions of the nervous system• Insights into pharmacology of neural transmission
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Psychopharmacology
• The Study of Psychoactive Drugs and Their Effects
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Names of DrugsBrand, trade, ‘proprietary’ name: e.g., Adderal®different preparations, companies, etc.
Generic, (common) ‘nonproprietary’ name: d-amphetamine
Chemical name: alpha-methylphenethylamine
Street names: e.g..Bennies, black beauties, bumble bees, co-pilots, Crank, Cross tops, Crystal meth, Dexies, Footballs, Hearts, Hot Ice, Ice, L.A. glass, Meth, MDMA, Pep pills, Speed, Uppers
Mostly I will use the generic name.
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Example: Valium7-chloro--1-methyl-5-phenyl-3H-1,4-
benzodiazepin-2[1H]-one
diazepam
valium
tranks, downers, blues, yellows
• chemical
• generic
• trade
• street
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Classifying Drugs-another difficult issue
– Therapeutic vs. non-therapeutic– Legal vs. illegal– Recreational vs. medicinal– Mechanism of action– Site of action– By origin– By chemical structure– Behavioral effects
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Classifying Drugs
• Ultimately, as practiced, the classification of drugs is political/social as much as it is scientific.
• Two most common classifications– Scheduling– Behavioral effects
• Both have associated problems
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Behavioral Effects Classification
• Classified by effects on behavior and/or central nervous system– Depressants– Stimulants– Narcotics/Analgesics– Psychedelics
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Although the Behavioral class system is generally useful…
• Consider the problem of classification based on behavioral effects.– What is the behavioral effect of alcohol?– What is the behavioral effect of Nicotine?
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Nonetheless, the behavioral effect classification system would generally be as follows:
• Depressants• Actions in the nervous system lead to
decreased physiological activity and sedation– Alcohol – – Barbiturates – – Benzodiazepines –
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Stimulants
• Increase physiological processes and motor behavior– Cocaine– Amphetamine – – Caffeine – – Nicotine –
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Narcotic Analgesics (Opiates)
• increase activity in the endogenous opiate system leading to pain suppression, feelings of euphoria, well-being, and respiratory depression– Heroin – – Codeine – – Morphine – – Vicodin, Percocet, etc. –
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Psychedelics
• Alter mood state and perception via action on the CNS. – LSD (acid)– Psylocibin (mushrooms)– Phencyclidine (PCP)
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Marijuana-
• Vs. many other drugs, the problems of classification are at least recognized
• In a class by itself– Complex behavioral effects– Main effect is on cannabinoid neurotransmitter
system
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Take-Home Message
• Drug classification systems are only a convenient tool for communicating superficial characteristics of a drug. Almost all classification systems breakdown fairly quickly when deeper consideration is given to the individual drugs within each class.