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How Biological Diversity EvolvesMACROEVOLUTION
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Biology and Society: The Sixth Mass Extinction
Over the past 600 million years the fossil record reveals five periods of extinction when 50–90% of living species suddenly died out.
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Figure 14.00
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Our current rate of extinction, over the past 400 years, indicates that we may be living in, and contributing to, the sixth mass extinction period.
Mass extinctions: Pave the way for the evolution of new and diverse
forms, but Take millions of years for Earth to recover The most “famous” mass-extinction is the K-T Mass
Extinction which included the extinction of the dinosaurs (except birds). This will be discussed in Chapter 17.
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MACROEVOLUTION AND THE DIVERSITY OF LIFEMacroevolution:
Encompasses the major biological changes evident in the fossil record
Includes the formation of new species
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THE ORIGIN OF SPECIESSpecies is a Latin word meaning:
“Kind” or “Appearance.”
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What Is a Species?The biological species concept defines a species as
“A group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring”
It is also sometimes stated like this: “A group of populations whose members share a common gene pool and are potentially interbreeding”
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Speciation: Is the focal point of macroevolution May occur based on two contrasting patterns, non-
branching and branching.
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In non-branching evolution: A population transforms but does not create a new species Actually, it may, but the hypothesis is usually untestable.
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In branching evolution, one or more new species branch from a parent species that may: Continue to exist in much the same form or Change considerably
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Diversity within one speciesSimilarity between different species
Figure 14.2
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The biological species concept cannot be applied in all situations, including: Fossils Asexual organisms
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Reproductive Barriers/Isolating Mechanisms between Species
What’s the logic of isolating mechanisms/reproductive barriers?
?
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Reproductive Barriers between SpeciesPrezygotic barriers prevent mating or
fertilization between species.
Below are some examples you can see at MasteringBiology
Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual
Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual
Video: Giraffe Courtship Ritual
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VIABLE, FERTILE OFFSPRING
Hybrid breakdown
FERTILIZATION (ZYGOTE FORMS)
INDIVIDUALS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES
MATING ATTEMPT
Reduced hybrid fertility
Reduced hybrid viability
Temporal isolation
Habitat isolation
Behavioral isolation
Mechanical isolation
Gametic isolation
Prezygotic Barriers
Postzygotic Barriers
Figure 14.3
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Temporal Isolation Habitat Isolation
PREZYGOTIC BARRIERS
Mechanical Isolation Gametic IsolationBehavioral Isolation
Figure 14.4
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Postzygotic barriers operate if: Interspecies mating occurs and Hybrid zygotes form
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VIABLE, FERTILE OFFSPRING
Hybrid breakdown
FERTILIZATION (ZYGOTE FORMS)
INDIVIDUALS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES
MATING ATTEMPT
Reduced hybrid fertility
Reduced hybrid viability
Temporal isolation
Habitat isolation
Behavioral isolation
Mechanical isolation
Gametic isolation
Prezygotic Barriers
Postzygotic Barriers
Figure 14.3
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Postzygotic barriers include: Reduced hybrid viability Reduced hybrid fertility Hybrid breakdown
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Hybrid BreakdownReduced Hybrid FertilityReduced Hybrid Viability
POSTZYGOTIC BARRIERS
Donkey
Mule
Horse
Figure 14.5
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Mechanisms of SpeciationA key event in the potential origin of a species
occurs when a population is severed from other populations of the parent species.
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Species can form by: Allopatric speciation, due to geographic isolation Sympatric speciation, without geographic isolation
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Allopatric speciation Simpatric speciation
Figure 14.6
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Video: Grand Canyon
Allopatric SpeciationGeologic processes can:
Fragment a population into two or more isolated populations
Contribute to allopatric speciation
Video: Volcanic Eruption
Video: Lava Flow
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Ammospermophilus harrisii Ammospermophilus leucurus
Figure 14.7
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Speciation occurs only with the evolution of reproductive barriers between the isolated population and its parent population.
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Geographicbarrier
Populationsinterbreed
Time
Populationsbecomeallopatric
Populationsbecomesympatric
Populationscannotinterbreed
Reproductiveisolation:Speciation hasoccurred
Gene pools merge:No speciation
Figure 14.8
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Sympatric SpeciationSympatric speciation occurs:
While the new species and old species live in the same time and place
If a genetic change produces a reproductive barrier between the new and old species
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Polyploids can: Originate from accidents during cell division Result from the hybridization of two parent species
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Many domesticated plants are the result of sympatric speciation, including: Oats Potatoes Bananas Peanuts Apples Coffee Wheat
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DomesticatedTriticum monococcum(14 chromosomes)
T. turgidumEmmer wheat(28 chromosomes)
WildT. tauschii(14 chromosomes)
Wild Triticum(14 chromosomes)
T. aestivumBread wheat(42 chromosomes)
Sterile hybrid(14 chromosomes)
Sterile hybrid(21 chromosomes)
AA BB DD
AA BB DD
ABD
AA BB
AB
Figure 14.9-4
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Figure 14.9a
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What Is the Tempo of Speciation?There are two contrasting models of the pace of
evolution: The gradual model, in which big changes (speciations)
occur by the steady accumulation of many small changes The punctuated equilibria model, in which there are
Long periods of little change, equilibrium, punctuated by Abrupt episodes of speciation
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Punctuatedmodel
Graduatedmodel
Time
Figure 14.10
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THE EVOLUTION OF BIOLOGICAL NOVELTYWhat accounts for the evolution of biological novelty?
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Adaptation of Old Structures for New FunctionsBirds:
Are derived from a lineage of earthbound reptiles Evolved flight from flightless ancestors
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Wing claw(like reptile)
Teeth(like reptile)
Long tail withmany vertebrae(like reptile)
Feathers
Fossil Artist’s reconstruction
Figure 14.11
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An exaptation: Is a structure that evolves in one context, but becomes
adapted for another function Is a type of evolutionary remodeling
Exaptations can account for the gradual evolution of novel structures.
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Bird wings are modified forelimbs that were previously adapted for non-flight functions, such as: Thermal regulation Courtship displays Camouflage
The first flights may have been only glides or extended hops as the animal pursued prey or fled from a predator.
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Evo-Devo: Development and Evolutionary NoveltyA subtle change in a species’ developmental
program can have profound effects, changing the: Rate Timing Spatial pattern of development
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Evo-devo, evolutionary developmental biology, is the study of the evolution of developmental processes in multicellular organisms.
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Paedomorphosis: Is the retention into adulthood of features that were
solely juvenile in ancestral species Has occurred in the evolution of
Axolotl salamanders Humans
Animation: Allometric Growth
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Gills
Figure 14.12
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Chimpanzee fetus Chimpanzee adult
Human adult(paedomorphic features)
Human fetus
Figure 14.13
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Homeotic genes are master control genes that regulate: When structures develop How structures develop Where structures develop
Mutations in homeotic genes can profoundly affect body form.
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EARTH HISTORY AND MACROEVOLUTIONMacroevolution is closely tied to the history of the Earth.
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Geologic Time and the Fossil RecordThe fossil record is:
The sequence in which fossils appear in rock strata An archive of macroevolution
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Figure 14.14
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Figure 14.14a
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Figure 14.14b
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Figure 14.14c
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Figure 14.14d
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Figure 14.14e
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Geologists have established a geologic time scale reflecting a consistent sequence of geologic periods.
Animation: Macroevolution
Animation: The Geologic Record
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Table 14.1
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Table 14.1a
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Table 14.1b
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Table 14.1c
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Table 14.1d
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Fossils are reliable chronological records only if we can determine their ages, using: The relative age of fossils, revealing the sequence in
which groups of species evolved, or The absolute age of fossils, requiring other methods
such as radiometric dating
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Radiometric dating: Is the most common method for dating fossils Is based on the decay of radioactive isotopes Helped establish the geologic time scale
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Carbon-14 in shell
Time (thousands of years)
Radioactive decayof carbon-14
How carbon-14dating isused to determinethe vintageof a fossilizedclam shell
Car
bo
n-1
4 r
adio
acti
vity
(a
s %
of
livi
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org
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ism
’sC
-14
to C
-12
rati
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100
75
0
50
25
0 5.6 50.411.2 16.8 22.4 28.0 33.6 39.2 44.8
Figure 14.15
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Plate Tectonics and MacroevolutionThe continents are not locked in place.
Continents drift about the Earth’s surface on plates of crust floating on a flexible layer called the mantle.
The San Andreas fault is: In California At a border where two plates slide past each other
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Figure 14.16
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About 250 million years ago: Plate movements formed the supercontinent Pangaea The total amount of shoreline was reduced Sea levels dropped The dry continental interior increased in size Many extinctions occurred
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Pangaea
Pre
sen
t
Pal
eozo
icC
eno
zoic
Mes
ozo
ic
251
mil
lio
n y
ears
ag
o13
565
Laurasia
Gondwana
Eurasia
IndiaMadagascar
North Americ
a
AfricaSouthAmerica
Antarctica Australia
Figure 14.17
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About 180 million years ago: Pangaea began to break up Large continents drifted increasingly apart Climates changed The organisms of the different biogeographic realms
diverged
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Plate tectonics explains: Why Mesozoic reptiles in Ghana (West Africa) and Brazil
look so similar How marsupials were free to evolve in isolation in Australia
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Mass Extinctions and Explosive Diversifications of LifeThe fossil record reveals that five mass
extinctions have occurred over the last 600 million years.
The Permian mass extinction: Occurred at about the time the merging continents
formed Pangaea (250 million years ago) Claimed about 96% of marine species
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The Cretaceous extinction: Occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period, about 65
million years ago Included the extinction of all the dinosaurs except birds Permitted the rise of mammals
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The Process of Science: Did a Meteor Kill the Dinosaurs?
Observation: About 65 million years ago, the fossil record shows that: The climate cooled Seas were receding Many plant species died out Dinosaurs (except birds) became extinct A thin layer of clay rich in iridium was deposited
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Question: Is the iridium layer the result of fallout from a huge cloud of dust that billowed into the atmosphere when a large meteor or asteroid hit Earth?
Hypothesis: The mass extinction 65 million years ago was caused by the impact of an extraterrestrial object.
Prediction: A huge impact crater of the right age should be found somewhere on Earth’s surface.
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Results: Near the Yucatán Peninsula, a huge impact crater was found that: Dated from the predicted time Was about the right size Was capable of creating a cloud that could have
blocked enough sunlight to change the Earth’s climate for months
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Figure 14.18-1
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Figure 14.18-2
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Chicxulubcrater
Figure 14.18-3
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CLASSIFYING THE DIVERSITY OF LIFESystematics focuses on:
Classifying organisms Determining their evolutionary relationships
Taxonomy is the: Identification of species Naming of species Classification of species
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Some Basics of TaxonomyScientific names ease communication by:
Unambiguously identifying organisms Making it easier to recognize the discovery of a new
speciesCarolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) proposed the
current taxonomic system based upon: A two-part name for each species (binomial
nomenclature) A hierarchical classification of species into broader
groups of organisms
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Naming SpeciesEach species is assigned a two-part name or
binomial, consisting of: The genus A name unique for each species
The scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens, a two part name, italicized and latinized, and with the first letter of the genus capitalized.
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Hierarchical ClassificationSpecies that are closely related are placed into the same genus.
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Jaguar (Panthera onca)
Lion (Panthera leo)Tiger (Panthera tigris)
Leopard (Panthera pardus)
Figure 14.19
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The taxonomic hierarchy extends to progressively broader categories of classification, from genus to: Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain
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Leopard (Panthera pardus)
SpeciesPantherapardus
GenusPanthera
FamilyFelidae
OrderCarnivora
ClassMammalia
PhylumChordata
KingdomAnimalia
DomainEukarya
Figure 14.20
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Classification and PhylogenyThe goal of systematics is to reflect evolutionary
relationships.Biologists use phylogenetic trees to:
Depict hypotheses about the evolutionary history of species
Reflect the hierarchical classification of groups nested within more inclusive groups
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Panthera pardus
(leopard)
SpeciesGenus
Felidae
Order
Carnivora
Family
Canis
Lutra
Panthera
Mephitis
Canidae
Mustelidae
Canis lupus(wolf)
Canis latrans
(coyote)
Lutralutra
(Europeanotter)
Mephitis mephitis
(striped skunk)
Figure 14.21
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Sorting Homology from AnalogyHomologous structures:
Reflect variations of a common ancestral plan Are the best sources of information used to
Develop phylogenetic trees Classify organisms according to their evolutionary
history
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Convergent evolution: Involves superficially similar structures in unrelated
organisms Is based on natural selection
Similarity due to convergence: Is called analogy, not homology Can obscure homologies
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Molecular Biology as a Tool in Systematics
Molecular systematics: Compares DNA and amino acid sequences between
organisms Can reveal evolutionary relationships
Some fossils are preserved in such a way that DNA fragments can be extracted for comparison with living organisms.
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Figure 14.22
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The Cladistic RevolutionCladistics is the scientific search for clades.A clade:
Consists of an ancestral species and all its descendants
Forms a distinct branch in the tree of life
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Hair, mammaryglands
Long gestation
Gestation
Duck-billedplatypus
Iguana Outgroup(reptile)
Ingroup(mammals)
Beaver
Kangaroo
Figure 14.23
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Cladistics has changed the traditional classification of some organisms, including the relationships between: Dinosaurs Birds Crocodiles Lizards Snakes
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Lizardsand snakes
Crocodilians
Saurischiandinosaurs
Ornithischiandinosaurs
Pterosaurs
Birds
Commonancestor ofcrocodilians,dinosaurs,and birds
Figure 14.24
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Classification: A Work in ProgressLinnaeus:
Divided all known forms of life between the plant and animal kingdoms
Prevailed with his two-kingdom system for over 200 years
In the mid-1900s, the two-kingdom system was replaced by a five-kingdom system that: Placed all prokaryotes in one kingdom Divided the eukaryotes among four other kingdoms
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In the late 20th century, molecular studies and cladistics led to the development of a three-domain system, recognizing: Two domains of prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea) One domain of eukaryotes (Eukarya)
Animation: Classification Schemes
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KingdomAnimalia
Domain Archaea Earliest organisms
Domain Bacteria
Domain Eukarya
KingdomFungi
KingdomPlantae
The protists(multiplekingdoms)
Figure 14.25
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Evolution Connection: Rise of the Mammals
Mass extinctions: Have repeatedly occurred throughout Earth’s history Were followed by a period of great evolutionary
change
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Fossil evidence indicates that: Mammals first appeared about 180 million years ago The number of mammalian species
Remained steady and low in number until about 65 million years ago and then
Greatly increased after most of the dinosaurs became extinct
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American black bear
Eutherians (5,010 species)
Millions of years ago
Monotremes (5 species)
Marsupials (324 species)
Ancestral mammal
Reptilian ancestor
Extinction of dinosaurs
250 200 150 100 5065 0
Figure 14.26
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Earliestorganisms
Eukarya
Bacteria
Archaea
Figure 14.UN3