Download - HBO Handout Chapter 5 (Motivation)
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ChapterChapter
MotivationMotivation
55
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-3Determinants of Job Performance
Determinants of Job Performance
Job performanceJob performance
Willingness to perform
Opportunity to perform
Capacity to perform
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5-4The Starting Point: The Individual
(1 of 4)
The Starting Point: The Individual
(1 of 4)
• Most managers must motivate a diverse and unpredictable group of people
• The diversity results in different behavioral patterns that are in some manner related to needs and goals
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The Motivational Process: A General Model
The Motivational Process: A General Model
The The EmployeeEmployee
I.
Need deficienciesNeed deficiencies
II.Search for ways to Search for ways to satisfy needssatisfy needs
III.
Goal-directed Goal-directed behaviorbehavior
IV.
Performance Performance (evaluation of goals (evaluation of goals accomplished)accomplished)
V.
Rewards or Rewards or punishmentspunishments
VI.Need deficiencies Need deficiencies reassessed by the reassessed by the employeeemployee
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5-6The Starting Point: The Individual
(2 of 4)
The Starting Point: The Individual
(2 of 4)
• Need – a deficiency or lack of something of value that an individual experiences at a particular point in time
• Deficiencies may be:• Physiological (e.g., a need for food)• Psychological (e.g., a need for self-esteem)• Sociological (e.g., a need for social
interaction)
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5-7The Starting Point: The Individual
(3 of 4)The Starting Point: The Individual
(3 of 4)
• When needs are present, the individual will seek to fulfill those needs and may be more susceptible to managers’ motivational efforts
• Work-related needs can vary from individual to individual
• People seek to reduce need deficiencies• Need deficiencies trigger a search process
for ways to reduce the tension caused by the deficiencies
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5-8The Starting Point: The Individual
(4 of 4)The Starting Point: The Individual
(4 of 4)
• The motivational process is goal-directed
• The goals (or outcomes) that an employee seeks are viewed as forces that attract the person
• The accomplishment of desirable goals can result in a significant reduction in need deficiencies
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5-9Motivation Theories: A Summary Overview
Motivation Theories: A Summary Overview
Content Motivation Theories
• Theories that focus on factors within a person that:• Energize behavior• Direct behavior• Sustain behavior• Stop behavior• These factors can only
be inferred
Content Motivation Theories
• Theories that focus on factors within a person that:• Energize behavior• Direct behavior• Sustain behavior• Stop behavior• These factors can only
be inferred
Process Motivation Theories
• Theories that describe and analyze how behavior is:• Energized• Directed• Sustained• Stopped
Process Motivation Theories
• Theories that describe and analyze how behavior is:• Energized• Directed• Sustained• Stopped
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Content Theories of MotivationContent Theories of Motivation
Founders of the Theories• Maslow – five-level need
hierarchy• Alderfer – three-level
hierarchy (ERG)• Herzberg – two major
factors (hygienes and motivators)
• McClelland – three learned needs acquired from the culture
Founders of the Theories• Maslow – five-level need
hierarchy• Alderfer – three-level
hierarchy (ERG)• Herzberg – two major
factors (hygienes and motivators)
• McClelland – three learned needs acquired from the culture
Managerial Application• Managers need to be
aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique in many ways
Managerial Application• Managers need to be
aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique in many ways
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (1 of 2)Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (1 of 2)
Maslow defined human needs as:
• Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain
• Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings
• Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (2 of 2)Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (2 of 2)
• Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others
• Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by making maximum use of abilities, skills, and potential
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5-13Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Related to the Job
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Related to the Job
Receiving a sufficient salary to live onHaving sufficient food and drink available
Working in a comfortable environment
Receiving regular salary increasesHaving medical and disability insuranceWorking in a hazard free environment
PHYSIOLOGICAL
SAFETY AND SECURITY
Being accepted by personal and professional friends
Working in groups that are compatibleHaving supportive supervision
BELONGINGNESS, SOCIAL, AND LOVE
Receiving a high-level promotionEarning an outstanding reputation among peers
Winning a coveted award for performance
ESTEEM
Starting a successful new business
Developing and mentoring othersUsing business skills to start a charity that
helps homeless childrenSELF-ACTUALIZATION
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Maslow’s Theory: Key PointsMaslow’s Theory: Key Points
1. A person attempts to satisfy basic needs before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs
2. A satisfied need ceases to motivate3. Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict,
and stress4. People have a need to grow and develop and will
strive constantly to move up the hierarchy in terms of need satisfaction
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Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:
1. Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions
2. Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships
3. Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions
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5-16Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Key Points
(1 of 2)Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Key Points
(1 of 2)
• In addition to the satisfaction-progression process, a frustration-regression process is also at work• e.g., if a person is continually frustrated in
attempts to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs reemerge as a major motivating force
• this causes the individual to redirect efforts toward satisfying a lower-order need category
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5-17Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Key Points
(2 of 2)Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Key Points
(2 of 2)
• Individuals are motivated to engage in behavior to satisfy one of the three sets of needs
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5-18Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Management Application
Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Management Application
• If a subordinate’s higher-order needs (e.g., growth) are being blocked, perhaps because of a company policy or lack of resources,
• Then it is in the manager’s best interest to attempt to redirect the subordinate’s efforts toward relatedness or existence needs
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Extrinsic Conditions: Dissatisfiers or Hygienes
• Salary• Job security• Working conditions• Status• Company procedures• Quality of technical
supervision• Quality of interpersonal
relations among peers, with superiors, and subordinates
Extrinsic Conditions: Dissatisfiers or Hygienes
• Salary• Job security• Working conditions• Status• Company procedures• Quality of technical
supervision• Quality of interpersonal
relations among peers, with superiors, and subordinates
Intrinsic Conditions: Satisfiers or Motivators
• Achievement• Recognition• Responsibility• Advancement• The work itself• The possibility of growth
Intrinsic Conditions: Satisfiers or Motivators
• Achievement• Recognition• Responsibility• Advancement• The work itself• The possibility of growth
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I. Traditional Job Satisfaction TheoryI. Traditional Job Satisfaction TheoryHigh job High job dissatisfactiondissatisfaction
High job High job satisfactionsatisfaction
II. Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryII. Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryNo jobNo jobsatisfactionsatisfaction
High jobHigh jobsatisfactionsatisfaction
No jobNo jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction
High jobHigh jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction
Based on MotivatorsBased on Motivators•Feeling of achievementFeeling of achievement•Meaningful workMeaningful work•Opportunities for advancementOpportunities for advancement•Increased responsibilityIncreased responsibility•RecognitionRecognition•Opportunities for growthOpportunities for growth
Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors•PayPay•StatusStatus•Job securityJob security•Working conditionsWorking conditions•Employee benefitsEmployee benefits•Policies and proceduresPolicies and procedures•Interpersonal relationsInterpersonal relations
Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction
Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction
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5-21Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:Job EnrichmentHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:Job Enrichment
• The process of building personal achievement, recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a person’s job
• Has the effect of increasing the individual’s motivation by providing him/her with more discretion and accountability when performing challenging work
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5-22McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
AchievementAchievement
(n Ach)(n Ach)McClelland contends
that when a need is
strong in a person, its
effect is to motivate the
person to use behavior
that leads to its
satisfaction.
McClelland contends
that when a need is
strong in a person, its
effect is to motivate the
person to use behavior
that leads to its
satisfaction.
AffiliationAffiliation
(n Aff)(n Aff)
PowerPower
(n Pow)(n Pow)
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5-23McClelland’s Theory: Key Points
McClelland’s Theory: Key Points
1. Needs are learned through coping with one’s environment
2. Since needs are learned, behavior which is rewarded tends to recur at a higher frequency
3. As a result of the learning process, individuals develop unique configurations of needs that affect their behavior and performance
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A Comparison of the Content Theories
A Comparison of the Content Theories
MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)
Self-actualizationSelf-actualization
EsteemEsteem
Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love
Safety and securitySafety and security
PhysiologicalPhysiological
MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)
Self-actualizationSelf-actualization
EsteemEsteem
Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love
Safety and securitySafety and security
PhysiologicalPhysiological
HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)
The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth
AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition
Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates
Job securityJob security
Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary
HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)
The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth
AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition
Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates
Job securityJob security
Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary
AlderferAlderfer
GrowthGrowth
RelatednessRelatedness
ExistenceExistence
AlderferAlderfer
GrowthGrowth
RelatednessRelatedness
ExistenceExistence
McClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed forachievementachievement
Need forNeed forpowerpower
Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation
McClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed forachievementachievement
Need forNeed forpowerpower
Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation
MotivatorsMotivators
HygieneHygieneconditionsconditions
HigherHigherorderorderneedsneeds
BasicBasicneedsneeds
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Process Theories of MotivationProcess Theories of Motivation
Founders of the Theories• Vroom – an expectance
theory of choices• Adams – equity theory
based on comparisons that individuals make
• Locke – goal-setting theory (conscious goals and intentions are the determinants of behavior)
Founders of the Theories• Vroom – an expectance
theory of choices• Adams – equity theory
based on comparisons that individuals make
• Locke – goal-setting theory (conscious goals and intentions are the determinants of behavior)
Managerial Application• Managers need to
understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments
Managerial Application• Managers need to
understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments
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Vroom’s Expectancy TheoryVroom’s Expectancy Theory
•Motivation is a process governing choices among alternate forms of voluntary activity
• Most behaviors are considered to be under the voluntary control of the person and consequently are motivated
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5-27Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (1 of 4)
Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (1 of 4)
• First-Level Outcomes• First-level outcomes resulting from behavior
are those associated with doing the job itself
• They include:• productivity• absenteeism• turnover• quality of production
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5-28Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (2 of 4)
Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (2 of 4)
• Second-Level Outcomes• Those events (rewards and punishments)
that the first-level outcomes are likely to produce, such as:• merit pay increases• group acceptance or rejection• promotion• termination
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5-29Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (3 of 4)
Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (3 of 4)
• Instrumentality• The perception by an individual that first-
level outcomes are associated with second-level outcomes
• Valence• The preferences for outcomes as seen by
the individual
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5-30Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (4 of 4)
Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (4 of 4)
• Expectancy• The individual’s belief regarding the
likelihood or subjective probability that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome
• Easily thought of as a probability statement
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EffortEffort PerformancePerformance
First-level outcome
First-level outcome
First-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Expectancy Theory
E P EXPECTANCY
Perceived probability of Perceived probability of successful performance, successful performance, given effortgiven effort
E O EXPECTANCY
Perceived probability of Perceived probability of receiving an outcome, given receiving an outcome, given performanceperformance
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Equity TheoryEquity Theory
• Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations
• Based on the assumption that individuals are motivated by a desire to be equitably (fairly) at work
• The individual works in exchange for rewards from the organization
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Equity Theory: Key TermsEquity Theory: Key Terms
• Person – the individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived
• Comparison other – any group or persons used by Person as a referent regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes
• Inputs – the individual characteristics brought by Person to the job
• Outcomes – what Person received from the job
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Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)
and perceivesand perceivesOP ORP IP
IRP
equity=
OP ORP IP
IRP
inequity<
OP ORP IP
IRP
inequity >
or
or
IP: Inputs of the personIP: Inputs of the person
OP: Outcomes of the personOP: Outcomes of the person
IRP: Inputs of reference personIRP: Inputs of reference person
ORP: Outcomes of reference personORP: Outcomes of reference person
A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)
The Equity Theory of MotivationThe Equity Theory of Motivation
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5-35Change Procedures to Restore Equity
Change Procedures to Restore Equity
1. Changing inputs2. Changing outcomes3. Changing attitudes4. Changing the reference person5. Changing the inputs or outcomes of the
reference person6. Leaving the field
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Organizational JusticeOrganizational Justice
• The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace• Distributive justice – the perceived fairness of how
resources and rewards are distributed throughout an organization
• Procedural justice – the perceived equity or fairness of the organization’s processes and procedures used to make resource and allocation decisions
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5-37Procedural Justice: Positive Impact
Procedural Justice: Positive Impact
• Procedural justice has been shown to have a positive impact on affective and behavioral reactions:• Organizational commitment• Intent to stay with the organization• Organizational citizenship• Trust in supervisor• Satisfaction with decision outcome• Work effort• Performance
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5-38Key Steps to Implementing a Commitment-Oriented Management System:
Key Steps to Implementing a Commitment-Oriented Management System:
1. Commit to people-first values
2. Clarify and communicate your mission
3. Guarantee organizational justice
4. Create a sense of community
5. Support employee development
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Goal Setting: Key ConceptsGoal Setting: Key Concepts
Goal setting The process of establishing goals
Goal Specific target that a person, team, or group is attempting to accomplish
Goal specificity Degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal
Goal difficulty Level of performance required to achieve the goal
Goal intensity Process of setting the goal or of determining how to reach it
Goal commitment Amount of effort used to achieve a goal
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5-40Examples of Goal Setting at Work
Examples of Goal Setting at Work
• Developing a new software program within 4-6 months to detect malicious viruses on the Internet
• Landing 5 new customers or increasing sales of existing customers by 10% over the next 12 months
• Decreasing waste in the manufacturing process by 20% over the next 3 years
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5-41Goal Setting Applied to Organizations
Goal Setting Applied to Organizations
Goal Characteristics Performance Rewards
Moderators
• Clarity• Meaningful• Challenging
• Ability• Commitment• Feedback
Desired by Organization
Preferred by Individual or Team
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Exchange TheoryExchange Theory
• Suggests that members of an organization engage in reasonably predictable give-and-take relationships (exchanges) with each other• e.g., an employee gives time and effort in
exchange for pay• e.g., management provides pleasant
working conditions in exchange for employee loyalty
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Psychological Contract (1 of 2)Psychological Contract (1 of 2)
• An unwritten agreement between the individual and the organization which specifies what each expects to give and receive from the other
• These implicit agreements may take precedence over written agreements
• May focus on exchanges involving: satisfaction, challenging work, fair treatment, loyalty, and opportunity to be creative
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Psychological Contract (2 of 2)Psychological Contract (2 of 2)
• Managing the psychological contract is a key aspect of most managers’ jobs
• The more attuned the manager is to the needs and expectations of subordinates, the greater the number of matches that are likely to exist and be maintained in the psychological contract
• This can positively impact the direction, intensity, and persistence of motivation in the organization
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Conclusions for Managers (1 of 2)Conclusions for Managers (1 of 2)
1. Managers can influence the motivation state of employees
• If performance needs to be improved, managers must intervene and help create an atmosphere that encourages, supports, and sustains improvement
2. Managers should be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities, and goals
• Managers must also consider differences in preferences (valences) for rewards
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Conclusions for Managers (2 of 2)Conclusions for Managers (2 of 2)
3. Continual monitoring of needs, abilities, goals, and preferences of employees is each individual manager’s responsibility
• It is not just the domain of human resources managers only
4. Managers need to work on providing employees with jobs that offer task challenge, diversity, and a variety of opportunities for need satisfaction