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Regionalism, Functionalism, and Universal International OrganizationAuthor(s): Ernst B. HaasSource: World Politics, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Jan., 1956), pp. 238-263Published by: Cambridge University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2008973.
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8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
2/27
REGIONALISM,
FUNCTIONALISM,
AND
UNIVERSAL
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION*
By
ERNST
B.
HAAS
N
THING
compels
he reexamination
f basic onstitutional
postulates
o much s the
possibility
f their eaceful
evision.
Hence hemuch-advertisednitedNations eview onferencender-
scores
heneedfor
ontrasting
he heoretical
tructuref
theCharter
with
he
realityf
thepractices
hich
ave
volved ithin
tsframe-
work.
uch
n effort,
hile t
might
ive upporto
those
whostrive
for evere
lterationsf
the tructure,
ay lso
ead
to the onclusion
that ven hough
he perational
ractices
f nternational
rganization
fail
to meet hespecifications
f theCharter,
eace
might e
more
securen theColdWarera f t s permittedo depend noperational
vagaries
ather
han on
legal precision.
What, then,
s the
basic
theory
f
theCharter
nd
what he ctual
ractice?
It
is
a commonplace
hat he
preservation
f peace
andsecurity
s
the
fundamental
im
of the United
Nations.
Collective
ecurity-
rather
han hemyriad
ffunctional
asks lso
entrusted
o
contempo-
rary
nternational
rganizations,
ncludingn
particular
he
dvance-
mentof economic evelopment
nd the
emancipation
f colonial
peoples-was
he
basic
urpose.conomic
ell-being
nd
the
chieve-
ment
f
national
elf-determination
ere onsidered
n 1945
as
means
toward
he end of security,
ot as basic
aims
n their
wn
right.
Further,
ecurity
as conceived
s the
resultantf
a
firm
oncert f
power
f
the
Big
Five, s institutionalized
n the
ecurity
ouncil
nd
its
voting
ules.
inally,
n the heory
f he
Charter,egional
rganiza-
tions
were
o
be
firmlyinked
o the
UnitedNations
nd
subordinate
to thedirectionf the Securityouncil.As SenatorVandenberg
argued,
We
have
found sound nd
practical
ormula or
putting
regional
rganizations
nto ffective
ear
with
global
nstitutions..
We
do notthus
ubtract
rom
lobal
unity
f the
world's
eace
nd
security;
n the
contrary,
e
weld these
egional ing-links
nto
a
*
I
am
greatly
ndebted
oPaul
Seabury
or
ritical
omments
nd dvice
nd
to
Fred
vonderMehden
or
much
esearch
ssistance.
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
239
global
chain. '
Only Article
1
foreshadowedhe
possibility
f the
regionalails
wagging
heglobaldog,
ather
han
cknowledging
he
directinguperiorityf
the
universalrgan.
Eachof these ostulatesasin factbeenupset y thepatternsf
behavior
manifestedn
international
rganizations
ince
947.
If
the
term
regional
rganization
s understoods
connoting
ny
kind
of
basic olitical
ie,
ilateralr
multilateral,
ased n a treatyr
merely
on
traditional
nderstandings,
ith he ole
proviso
hat articipation
is
by
definitionimited
o
certain tates
elected
ccording
o
some
principlef
mutual
olitical-military
eed, he
non-universal
attern
would eem o
be
growingy eaps nd
bounds.
four ighty
overeign
states,nly ifteenackmembershipnsuch ystems;f the ixty ur-
rentUnited
Nationsmembers,
nly even
emain
naffiliated,
nd
if
we
count
he
Afro-Asianloc as a
system,
he
number hrinks
o
four.
rue, n terms f
their
ualitative
ohesion,
hese ystemsary
from
he
oosenessf
the
Commonwealtho
the
military
nd
political
rigor f
NATO; but n almost
ll, the
cope f
cooperation
nd
even
of
centralized
ecision-making
oes
onsiderably
eyond
he
olegiven
to theUnitedNations.
The
advent f
regionalism
eflectshe
disintegration
f the oncert
of
power s
the
guarantorf
security.
ollective
ecurity ithin
he
universal
rganization
as become he
function,otof a
concert,ut
of
a
pair of new
operational
axims:
ermissive
nforcementnd
balancing.2ermissive
nforcementmplies he
delegationfenforcing
power o
a
membertate r a
group f
such tates,r
even o
regional
systems.
s
manifested
n the
Uniting or eace
Resolutionnd n the
Korean ituation,heprinciple akes ossiblehe nlistingfUnited
Nations
ymbols
nd values n
behalf f
anypolicy
which
ucceedsn
obtaininghe upportf
two-thirdsfthe
membership.
ut n regional
terms-as,
ndeed, as
been
clearly one by
American, ritish, a-
nadian,
nd
Australian
tatesmen-permissive
nforcement
mplies he
delegation
f
enforcing
ower o
a NATO or
a
SEATO as theonly
focus f
trength
hich
ould e
expectedo
undertake
arge-scale
ili-
tary perations.
alancing, y
contrast,
omes
bout s the
result
f
the ffortsf neutralrmediatingloc's eekingopreventermissive
enforcement
perations.
hrough
ffers
f
ompromisend
conciliatory
formulas-as
n
the Indian
scheme or
the
repatriationf
Korean
1
Ascited
n
NormanJ.
Padelford,Regional
rganizationsnd
the
United
Nations,
International
rganization,
iii,
No.
2
(May
1954),p.
216.
2
For
elaborationf
these
oncepts,ee
my Types
f
Collective
ecurity:
nExamina-
tion
of
Operational
oncepts,
merican
olitical cience
Review,
LIX,
No.
i
(March
'955).
-
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240 WORLD POLITICS
prisoners-such
bloc seeksto
prevent
he utilizationf
regional
strengthnderUnitedNations ymbols. ollectiveecurity
hen
be-
comes functionf a delicate egotiatingrocess,
ith
the
world
organizationhe orum,ot f communityonsciencera concertf
power, utof counterbalancingorces nwillingo seek showdown,
fearfulfalienatingriendsr neutrals,ndthereforeillingo make
concessions.
Finally, he theory f the Charter as in factbeen upsetby the
intrusionffunctionalnterestslamoringor ecognition
n their wn
right atherhan s adjunctso thepreservationfpeace.
No longers
the ecurityssue hedominatingne n all relationsetween egional
blocs. here s an evidentracticefbarteringoncessionsn economic,
social, nd colonial uestionsor upportn securityssues.ndeed, t
has
been uggestedhat here re woCold Wars: he onflictetween
theWest nd
he
oviets,nd he trugglef heAfro-Asianloc gainst
theWest n
the fforto eradicatecolonialism. 3hus,
hefunctional
and
security
laims
fregionalystemsave merged
s the ource
f
the
ctual unctioningf universalnternationalrganizations.4
It is the effortf this rticle o suggest number f propositions
permitting
he
elaborationf a limited Cold War
theory f the
relationships
etween
nternational
rganization
nd
world
politics,
restrictedn validity
o
the raof an active ripolarization
f
regional
cohesion,
fnot
f
power.
he
first
ask f
uch
n effort
s to
go beyond
the
theory
f the
Charters
expounded
n
I945
and
to
explain
he
advent
f
regionalism,
he
displacement
fthe
oncert
fpower
s
the
instrumentfsecurity,ndthe ntrusionffunctionalspirationsnto
the
political
ntercoursef
the
United
Nations. urthermore,
uch
an interpretivettempt ust utconduct
n
the
United
Nations nd
regional rganizations
nto heover-allontext
f
foreign
olicy ims
and
clashes. he
interpretation,herefore,
ssumes
asicallyhat ar-
3
Coral Bell, The United
Nations nd the
West, nternational
flairs,
XIX,
No. 4
(October
953). This
point
s
worked
out
in
the
formof
an equilibrium heory f
internationalrganization,
abeled
multiple quilibrium
ecauseof
its extensionnto
a non-power imension,yJiri iska, n TheMultiple quilibriumnd the American
National
Interest
n International
rganization,
arvard Studies n
International
Affairs,
v,
No. I
(February954).
4Critics
f
the advent
f
regionalism
nd
related actors
n
the
UnitedNations re
legion.Neutralists,espite
heir
spousal
f third
orces,
umber
ignificantlymong
them,
ut
so
do firm
upporters
f Western
olicy. ee, e.g.,
ByronDexter,
Locarno
Again, ForeignAffairs, xxii,
No.
i
(October
953);
Paul H.
Douglas, Unitedto
Enforce
eace, bid.,xxx,
No.
I
(October
951);
Commission
o
Study
he
Organiza-
tion
of
Peace,RegionalArrangementsor ecurity
nd the United
Nations,
New
York,
I953.
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
241
ticipationn
internationalrganizations
s
regarded
y policy-makers
as a means
or he chievementf
national
olicy
ims.
While he
national olicy
ims
provide
he nitial
oint
f
departure
inthe ffort,heprimaryoncernntheseuggestionssto abstracthe
patternf nterlockingolicies hich esult
romhese imswhen
hey
are actively
ursued
within he
organizational
rameworkf the
United
Nations, ATO,
or
theCommonwealth.ur
argument
olds
that general
rocess
f
balancing revails
t
the evel
f
regional
s
well as
global nternational
rganizations,
f which
ecurityssues,
colonial
spirations,ndeconomic emands orm
he
prime onstitu-
ents. ach of
these oncernsigures ithin he
ontext
f
regionalys-
tems;relationsetweenegionalystems-expresseds voting locs
in
the
General
ssembly-define
he
nature
f
United
ations
ctivity.
So
long s the
conditionsow
determining
he
policies
f states on-
tinue
o
dominate,
t
is
contended
hat
herange
f
alternativeoals
open n the
UnitedNations
s
roughlyimited
y he
perationf the
balancing
attern.
Balancing ere mplies
o more han he
tendencyf one setof
national rregionalims o be metbya counteringetofaspirations,
with measure
f
compromise
ikely
o be worked
ut o
long
s
the
participants
rove
unwilling
o
ignore
r
override
ompletelyhe
countervailingressuresreatedy their
olicies. o
notion fequal
countervailingorcess
being ntertained;et he
cheme ere
uggested
is
sufficiently
eminiscent
f the
classical alance
f
power atterno
requiren
examinationf
whether
he
balance
f
power,
onsidered
as
a
tool
of
political
nalysis,
s
applicable
o the
discussionf
inter-
national rganization.'
II
The first
tep
n the
development
f
such
scheme,
herefore,ust
be an
analysis
fthe
major egionalystems.
ttention
illbe
focused
on
thenature fthe
ommunity
f
nterests
hich ies
hememberso
one
another,
n
thefactors
f
cohesionnd
conflicthich
haracterize
eachsystemnternally,nd on theprocess f adjustment-orbal-
ancing -through
hich
achretains
hatever
iabilityt possesses.
Without
oubt,
he
Soviet
egional ystem
s the
most olidof
the
5This definitionf
balancing iffersrom
dward H.
Buehrig's
indred
uggestion.
His
conceptioneemsto me
to
be
synonymousith
what
s
generallyalled
power
politics.
ee
his The United
States,
he
United
Nations nd
Bi-polar
olitics,
nter-
national
Organization,
v, No.
4 (November
950).
For
a
treatmentf the
balanceof
power s a tool
of
political
nalysis,
ee
my
The
Balanceof
Power:
Concept, rescrip-
tion
or
Propaganda?
World
Politics, ,
No.
4 (July953).
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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242
WORLD POLITICS
entire
rray.
high
degree
f
ideological,
nstitutional,
nd
policy
congruence,
fnot
dentity,
s evidentn
the elationsetween
astern
Europe
nd
Moscow.
combination
f
concessionsnd
purges
uffices
to reestablishnitywhen tension oes develop.Whetherhrough
coercion
r
voluntary
greement,
hen,
n
the
ntergovernmental
nd
interparty
evels
he
oviet
loc
cts
s
one.
Whetherhe
ame
weeping eneralizations
an be
made bout he
Soviet-Chinese
elationship
s
another
matter.
While
the
diplomatic
record hows
hat
ull
greement
etween oscow
nd
Peiping
s
al-
ways
displayed
o theWest
n
the
ast
nalysis,
ertain
vidence
lso
suggestshat
he
wo
have
not
lways
marched
n
step
efore
he
ast
stagesf joint hrust.hus, uringheKorean risoneregotiations,
Peiping
eemed
repared
o
accept
he
ndian-sponsored
ompromise
resolutioneforeMoscow
was
ready
o
do so.'
Again,
during
he
Indo-Clinesealks
t
Geneva, ifferences
f
degreeeemed
ndicated
y
the
ess
ntransigentosition
aken
y
Molotov
ith
espect
oLaos
and
Cambodia, s
compared
iththe
nitial
rgument
f
Chou.
Other
negotiations
uggest
hat
he
mount nd
kind
f
economic
id
given
to China
and
the
security
ssue
n
the
Far
East
generally akeforfrictionetweenheCommunistartners.f therere
differences
n
outlook nd aim
between he
two,
t
follows
hat
ome
degree
f
adjustment
s
called
for
f
they
xpect
o
maintain
common
ront
toward
heir
nemies.
The
Western
amp,
composed
f
NATO, the
SEATO-ANZUS
combination,
nd
the
Organization
f
American
tates
OAS), ex-
hibits o such
unity.
onflicts
etweenhe
partners
rise
onstantly,
calling or djustmentnd redefinitionfcollectiveims,within ach
system
s
well
as
among
hem.
efore
xamining
he
combined
e-
havior
f thethree
ystems,
s
reflected
n
the
policy f
the
United
States
s
the
eading
memberf
each,
he
bases
f
nternal
greement
and divisionmust
e
outlined.
NATO exhibits
high
degree
f
consensus
ith
espect
o
theneed
for
ntegrated
ilitary
nd
political
ctivity
or
he
defensef
Europe.
Every
risis-including
hat
verGerman
earmament,
he
most
di-
visivessue ofar onfrontingATO-has been esolvednthebasis
of
a
larger
elegation
f
power
o
the
system's
entral
nstitutions.
It
is
because
f this
edrock
f
agreement
hat
pervasive
ommunity
of
interests
ouldtake
hape,
iving
ise
to
international
nstitutions
6
See
Indian
Proposals
or
Korean
Truce,
ndian
Press
Digest,
i,
No.
3
(March
1954),
for
a
study
of
diplomatic
xchanges
between
New
Delhi
and
Peiping,
as
revealed
rom
ndian
government
nd
press
ources.
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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244
WORLD
POLITICS
notes
hat
the fficial
ritish
oint fview
bout heUnitedNations
is
that t
s
now really
forum,
hat t should e universalnd
con-
tinue hespecial
osition f thegreat
owers
hroughhe veto,
ut
that t should
ot
beregardeds aneffectivenstrumentf collective
security.
egional acts
erve his
urpose
nstead. ut, n
contrasto
American redilections,
ritons
often avor
ringing
heso-called
neutral
tatesnto he
picture,
ince recisely
ecause f
their eutrality
they
ring ackthe
dea of
detachedudgment
n placeof
theclash
of
world
orces. 8
These
differencesre
ymbolizedy
the
positionakenn
European
independenteutralist
ircles.
While
upporting
ATO in Europe
(althoughsuallypposingermanearmament),raisingheUnited
States or
ts
eadership
gainst
ommunism,
ndappreciativef
eco-
nomic s
well
s
militaryid
programs,
hese neutralists
evertheless
demand
that
he ree
ationsfEurope
hould
otbe ed nto
laying
the
ole f
satelliteso
any
Power; hat hey
hould e
free o conduct
their
omestic
ffairsccording
o their
wn design;
nd that n the
foreignield
hey
hould
se
their
nfluencenwhatever
ay hey
on-
sidermost onduciveothepreservationndorganizationfpeace. 9
In
terms fglobal
ollective
ecurity,his
mplies he
ntercessionf
a
neutralthird
orce
o
facilitate
egotiationsnd
compromise,ven
though
his
orce
might eallied
o the
United tates
n
NATO.
Such
neutralistemandsmay
be
expected o grow
n
popularitynd ef-
fectiveness
hen
nstitutionalized
hroughheWestern
uropeannion
structure.n
terms
f
NATO
solidarity
n UnitedNations
ouncils,
these entiments
arry
ith
hem
he
need
or
onstantnternal
djust-
ment norderopreservearmony,n issue fparticularelevanceo
the
olidarityf
theWest
with espectoAsian
ecurity.
SEATO, despite
rench
nd
British
embership,
hus
y
no
means
represents
he
xtension
fAtlantic
egional
olidarity
o the
Far East.
Even
ANZUS,
ts
modest
redecessor,
as
kept
rom
eing ully
f-
fective y
disagreementverwhether
apan
r
China
was
the main
target
f
theAlliance.
ustraliand New Zealand
rgued
heformer
position,heUnited tateshe atter.hesedifficultiesre ompounded
by
the
heterogeneous
embership
f
SEATO.
As
made
plain
t
the
Bangkok
onference,
he United
tates
egards
ormosan,
orean,
Japanese,
nd Southeast sian
security
s mere
ocal
aspects
f
a
8Hugh Gaitskell,
The Search
for
Anglo-American
olicy, oreignAffairs,
XXII,
No.
4 (July I954),
p.
566.
I
Guy Mollet,
France
nd
the
Defense
f
Europe, bid.,xxxii,No. 3 (April I954),
pp.
365,
372-73.
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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
245
regional
front.
he
Philippines
ndThailand re
oncerned
rimarily
with
Formosa
nd
Indo-China.
ew
Zealand nd
Australiadvocate
immediate
ntegrated
ilitary
lanning
or
he
treaty
rea
proper-
which heUnited tates pposes-while ritainnd France re con-
cerned
with
Malaya nd
Indo-China,
nd Pakistan
with
ndia. The
community
f
ecurity
nterests
s
at
best tenuous
ne.
The
picture
s
made
more
omplex
ith he
ntroductionf
conomic
and
colonialssues.
arge-scale
conomic
evelopment
s
demanded
y
theAsian
membersnd
supportedy
Britain,
ith he
American
ole
and
contribution
eft
n doubt. akistan
nd
the
Philippinestand
or
the
emancipation
f
the
remaining
oloniesn
Asia;
France,
ritain,
andAustraliahow oparticularastendeparting.
It
is
therefore
ardly
urprising
hat
he
nstitutional
tructuref
SEATO
so far
s
unimpressive.he
supra-nationalATO
Secretariat
has
ts
ounterpart
n
Bangkok
nly
n
the orm
f
permanent
oun-
cil of
the
diplomatic
epresentatives
f
the
member
tates.
ontinuous
balancing
f
contradictory
ecurity
ims
will
be
required
o
maintain
a
harmony
f
interests.
nd
pronouncedntra-SEATO
djustments
on economicnd colonial uestions ill become ecessaryocement
the
greementn
security.
his
taskwill
not
be
made
easier
y the
conflicting
ommitmentsndforces
hich
revail
ithin
ATO. The
Atlantic eluctanceor
extensive
acific
ecurity
rrangements
an
hardly
e
overcome
y
conomicnd
colonial
oncessions,
ince
NATO
opposes
sian EATO
opinion
n
these
pheres
s
well.
On
balance,
he
impact
f Afro-Asian
eutralism
ay
well be
strengthened
ecause f
the
curious
mediating
ole
exercised
y the
Commonwealth.ith wo f tsmembersommittedotheneutralist
bloc-and
sharply
ritical f
SEATO-and
four
thers
articipating
in
the
Southeast
sian
ystem,
ommonwealth
tatesmen
nxious o
preserve
heir
wn
community
f
nterests
ust
teer
course
etween
fullWesternommitmentnd
encouragement
f
neutral
ntercession
betweenheSoviets
nd
theWest.
nstead f
unifying
he
wo
major
anti-Communist
egional
ystems,
hen,
he
Commonwealth
s
likely
to
enhance
he
necessity
or onstant
nterregional
djustmentsmply-
ing dilutionfcommitments.
Balancing
ithin he
OAS
hinges
n
the
ame
basic
ssues:
ecurity,
economics,
nd
colonial
mancipation.
s
in
NATO
and
SEATO,
Americanims
n
theWestern
emisphere
egional
ystemre
domi-
nated
y
ecurity
onsiderations.he
Rio
Pact
nd
the
Bogota
harter
have
ashioned
hemispheric
ystem
hich
ot
nly
tabilizesolitical
relations
mong
he
members
utwhich
lso
s
ntended
o
create
solid
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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246
WORLD POLITICS
frontmong hem
gainst xtra-hemisphereangers.
enceAmerican
policy
as
emphasized
he arming
nd standardizationf forces
n
South
America,
he
collective
iscouragement
f
Communist-tinged
movements,nd theundertakingfcooperativerogramsor nternal
security.
nd to the extent hatLatinAmerican
overnments
hare
Washington'setermination
o
keep
the
hemisphere
ree romOld
World nfluences
f
nykind,
heres
certainly
n
the
OAS a minimum.
communityf nterests
ith
espect
o
security.
More than
this,
however, ardly
xists. or
years,
atin Amer-
ican insistence
n
OAS-sponsored
conomic
evelopmentrograms
has fallen
on
unsympathetic
ars n
Washington.
ore American
investment,oretechnicalssistance,nd especially AS-adminis-
teredhemispheric
ommoditygreements
re
demanded
y
Latin
American overnments.
he essence f
Pan-Americanism,aysEze-
quiel Padilla,
s economic
olidarity:
The
objective
ould
be
to
treat
he
whole
hemisphere
s
one
economic
nit,
nd thus o
rescue
Latin
American
conomy
rom he
grip
f
blind
conomic orces. '0
The
desire or
ndustrialization
nd
the
fear
f
retainingingle-crop
economiesreconstanthemesnthese emandsndthey dd up to a
muchmore
lamorous
horus
han
Washington's
oncern
or rmed
strength.
n
equally
marked
ivergence
f
interestsxists n the
colonial phere.
n UnitedNations s well
as
in
OAS
meetings,he
termination
f colonialism
n
theWestern
emisphere
as been
de-
manded,
ith
n
invitation
o
Britain,rance,
nd
Holland
o
leave
their
emaining
merican
ossessions,
n aim to
which
heUnited
States
s
at
best ndifferent.
Cohesionn theOAS, therefore,s farfromtriking. judicious
process
f
balancing eeps
he
organization
ffective,s demonstrated
at theCaracas nd Rio Conferences
f
1954:
the
United tates cceded
to theLatindemand
or
ommodityegulation
o the
xtent f spon-
soring
conference
o
that
nd,
while he
South
Americansndorsed
Washington'sreoccupation
ith
emisphere
ecurityypassing eso-
lutionsgainst
ommunism
n
membertates
nd
bytacitlypproving
intervention
n Guatemala.
urther,
nited
tates
olicy ad to give
way nthe ealm f conomicevelopmentndcolonialmancipation,
as set
forth
elow,
n
the
ontinuing
ffort
o
retain
he
lmost olid
OAS-bloc
ote
n
favor
f American
nterpretations
nd
conceptions
of
global
ollective
ecurity,.e.,permissive
nforcement.
The
Afro-Asian
loc
differs
rom he
regionalystems
o
far
ex-
10
Ezequiel
Padilla,
The
Meaning
f
Pan-Americanism,
oreign
Affairs,
xxii,
No.
2
(January954), p.
274.
-
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ORGANIZATION
247
amined
n
that
t
doesnotpossess
ne organization
f
tsown.Apart
from
he almost
efunct
rab
League,
rregular
slamic
nd Asian
conferences
ave
been
he
nlymodes
forganization,
ith he
Afro-
Asian Conferencef
1955
the most mbitiousf suchefforts.wo
themesre
ommono
the
tates f
the
egion nd
make
p their
om-
munity
f nterests:
vital
oncern
ith
conomicevelopment,
nd
the
determination
o end
colonialism
verywhere.
The
economic
ssuemanifests
tself
n
demands
or arge-scale
nited
Nations
nvestment
utlays
nd
technicalssistance,
oupled
with he
assertion
f
the
ighto nationalize
nd
regulate
oreign
roperty.
et
these
ountries
eject
conomic
id as a substitute
or
freedom,
s
theyee t. TheArabworld,wrote Lebanese iplomat,antago-
nized
nd
isolated
nd
thrown
nto
despair,
an
no more e
restored
into
'situationf
strength'y
such
hort-cutss PointFour
than t
canbe
ntimidated
nto
ove fand
oyalty
o
theAmerican
ause
ya
show
fforce.'
Consensus
n the
Afro-Asianloc,
however,
s demonstrated
ni-
formly
n
the
ttack
n
all
colonial
estiges.
We
are
here
o challenge
the asic ssumptionsfnineteenth-centurymperialism,heEgyptian
delegate
eclared
o the
Security
ouncil
uring
heSuez
Canal dis-
pute.
If the
whole
f
Asia and
Africa
ombined
annot
et subject
discussed
ecause
f
two
or three
reat
owers
bjecting,
hen
he
time
may
ome
when heAsian
nd African ountries
ill feel hat
they
re happier
n their
wn countries
nd
not n the
UN,
Prime
Minister
ehru
oldthe ndianParliament.'2unis,
Morocco,
ew
Guinea, yprus,
ranian
il,
Palestine
efugees,
nd
theformer
talian
coloniesreall issueswhich,o theAfro-Asians,ymbolizeheirtrug-
gle against
llvestiges
f
Western
omination.
Agreement
isappears,
owever,
s soon
as the ssue
of
collective
security
s
raised.
o
doubt,
most
f the
tatesn the
region
re
neu-
tralist
n
the ense
f
preferring
onciliation
o
enforcement,
egotia-
tion
etween
he
uper-powers
o
ndefiniteipolarization
fmight
nd
influence.
et
three
f
them
ave
oined
EATO
and two
re
moving
toward ATO. Neutralismn the ense frigorouson-alignment
with
any
regional
lliance
ystem
haracterizes
nly
the
Colombo
Powers
excluding
akistan)
nd
thosemembers
f theArab
League
whichdisapprove
f
Iraq's
Western
rientation:
gypt,
yria,
nd
Saudi
Arabia.
t is
their octrine
fneutralism
hich alls
for
urther
11
Fayez
A.
Sayegh,
The
Arab
Reaction
o
American
olicy,
ocial
Science,
xvii,
No.
4 (October
952),
pp.
I90-93.
12Bell,
op.cit.,
pp.
466-67.
-
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248
WORLD POLITICS
examinationn terms
f the
dynamicsfregionalnd
universalnter-
national
rganization.
Rigorous
eutralismmplies
istrustor ll
Westerndeologies,ut
a tolerationor heir issidenttrains,speciallyn the imultaneousc-
ceptance
fbothMarxismnd
iberal
emocracyythe ame
groups.
This
detachment,n
turn, acilitatesn
indifferenceo
themeritsf
the
deologicalssuebetween he
super-powers.niversal
ollective
securitys thekey o
peace, nd
not
he
ivalryetween
power locs,
which
Nehrunever ires
f
castigating
nd with
whichhe
identifies
regional
rganizations.ohammed atta
described
bstentionrom
these locs s designedto
work
nergeticallyor he
preservation
f
peace ndthe elaxationf ensioneneratedy he woblocs, hrough
endeavors
upported
f
possible
y
he
majorityfthemembersfthe
United
ations.
s an llustrationf
his
olicymay
e cited
he fforts
made
by
ndonesian concert
ith
he
Arab nd Asian
ountries,
o
put
n
end
to thewar
n
Korea. '3
onciliation
nd mediation
n
the
Cold
War are
the obvious
olicy
erivativesrom
he
principle f
neutralism,s
consistentlyreachedy
Nehru
nd
endorsedvenby
Israel,ran, ndYugoslavia.
The
maximum
f
agreement
chieved
y
the
nner
oreof
neu-
tralist sian states
was revealed
n
the
1954
Colombo
Conference:
United
Nations
upervision
ver he
establishment
f
peace
n
Indo-
china,
ontinued
isarmamentalks
nd
a
cessation
f
hydrogen-bomb
tests
n
the
Pacific,
dmission
f
Peiping
o
theUnited
Nations,
e-
nunciation
f
colonialism,specially
n
North
Africa,
nd
the
desira-
bilityf alling
he
955
Afro-Asianonferenceo
considerhesessues
further.
alancingmong
he
five, owever,
as
manifestedn
this
declaration
f
solidarity
irected
qually gainst
ast
nd
West:
The
Prime
Ministers
ffirmed
heir
aith
n
democracy
.
.
and
.
.
de-
clared
heir
nshakable
eterminationo
resist
nterferencen
the
affairs
f their
ountries
y
external
ommunist,
nti-Communist
nd
other
gencies. '4
t
is
surmised
hat his
ruly
neutral
tatement
represents
ndia's
oncessiono Burma's
ndPakistan's
oncern
ver
Sino-Sovietxpansion.
13
MohammedHatta,
Indonesia's
Foreign Policy, Foreign Affairs, xxi, No. 3
(April 953), pp. 444-45.
Contrast
his
osition
ith
he
venmore
elativisticonception
of neutralismfferedy P. Middle
GroundBetween
America nd
Russia:
An
Indian
View, bid.,
XXXII,
No. 2
(January
954).
See also Robert
A.
Scalapino, 'Neutralism'
in Asia,
American
olitical cience
Review,
LVIII,
No.
i
(March
954).
14
Article
of the
Final
Communique
f the Conferencef
South-East sian Prime
Ministers;ndian
Council
of World
Affairs,oreign
Affairs
eports,
II,
No.
7 (July
I954) a
-
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249
Such
are the
nternal
armonies
nd
disharmonies
f regional
ys-
tems.
Regional
ohesions
maintained,
r at
least ought,
y
mutual
adjustments
nd concessions
n
therealm f
security.ut, n
addi-
tion, id nthe ealms f conomicevelopmentndcolonialmancipa-
tion
s bartered
or
upportn
security
ssues. ven
so,
ntra-regional
balancing
requently
ails o
establish
solidfront
n all
issues nd
unity f
performance
n theUnited
ationss
mperfect.ence t
s at
the
lobal
nstitutional
evel hat
dditionaloncessions
remade
within
and
among egional
ystems
norder o
enable
keyblocs
o
marshal
that
wo-thirds
ajority
hich s
essentialo
gaining
nited
Nations
endorsement
or ny setof
national olicies.
he
continuing
mpact
offunctionalismn security ustnowbe demonstrateds itmani-
fests
tselfhrough
egional
ensionsn
the
UnitedNations.
III
Aspirations
or
conomic
ell-being
nddemands or olonial ree-
dom are
certainly
actors hich
would
play n ever
more
mportant
role
n
internationalelations
ven
f therewereno
Cold
War.
Still,
intermsf nover-allatternfforeignelations,uestionsf ecurity
-collective
r
otherwise-are
ominant.While t
is no
doubt
rue
that
o
India
the
matter
f
economicevelopment
nd
to
Egypt
he
expulsion f
the
British
rom uez are
of far
greater
oncern han
the
rivalry etween
he
democratic
est nd
the Communist
oviet
bloc,
he
fact
emainshat
hese
ndian nd
Egyptian
spirationsain
most
f their
nternationalogency
rom
eing
ied omehow
o
Cold
War
strategy.
ence the
crucial
actorn a
theory
f
international
organizationemainshequestionfcollectiveecurity,incettends
to condition
he
mount
f
mpactnjoyed
y the
functional
ealms.
How does
balancing
n
the collective
ecurity
ieldmanifesttself
in the
closely
elated
reas of economic
evelopment
nd
colonial
emancipation?
Balancing
mplies he
preservationf
security
hrough process f
negotiation,
onciliation,
nd
mediation.
he
conciliators an
uncom-
mitted
arty,
r
member
f
major
ower loc
not
ully
n
agreement
with he eader fthegroup-in hort,heAfro-Asiannddissident
NATO or
SEATO
powers.
ecause f
his
crucial
mportance
o
both
super-powers
nd
their
llies, he
positionf the
conciliatorust
e
respected
o
some
xtent,
eading
o
concessions,
asing f
tensions,nd
even
dctentes.
cumulative
attern
f
compromises,
n
turn, ets
p
expectations
f
peace,
tability,
nd
coexistence
hich
he
uper-powers
can
violate
nly
t
great eril
o their
eputation
nd
eadership
n
the
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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250
WORLD
POLITICS
world.
oth
conomic
evelopment
nd the
ry
or
olonial
reedom
can
nd
do contribute
urther
mpetus
othe
alancing
attern,
ecause
they
reate
more
nd
more xpectations
etracting
rom
he
over-
whelminglyecurity-orientedpproach hich heWest eeks ogive
tothe
United
Nations,
hereby
trengthening
he
otal argaining
osi-
tion
f
he onciliating
loc
orblocs.
t must e stressed,
owever,
hat
only ssues
which
rouse
ontroversy
ulfillhisparticular
ole;
for
such
matters
s
the
tatus
f
women
r
the tandardization
fstatistics,
although
functional
n
the
usual
sense
f
that
erm,
o
not
give
rise o
a
pattern
f
compromise
nd
adjustment.
How, then,
oes
economic
evelopment
ffect
he
functioning
nd
impact ftheUnitedNations s a totality?egional nd national
aspirations
n
the
realm
f
international
nvestment
re singled
ut
as the
key
ndex
n
the nalysis,
specially
s
they
evolveround
ro-
posals
o create
n International
inance
Corporation
IFC)
and
a
Special
nited
ations
und
for
conomic
evelopment
SUNFED).
For the
underdeveloped
ember
tates,
he
proposition
s
fairly
simple.
he Afro-Asian
nd
most
f
the
Latin
American
ountries
feel hat
he
dearth
fprivate
nternational
enture
apital
nd
the
conservative
ending
olicy
f
the
nternationalankcallformore
UnitedNationsfforts.
hey
prefer
n
international
nstitution
nder
collective
ontrol
obilateral
ssistance
r
global
gencies
ominated
y
the
industrialized
ations.
hey
stress
he importance
f
non-self-
liquidating
rojects
nd
the
need
for
grants;
hey
bject
o the
high
interestates
nd
stringent
mortization
erms
ttached
o
the
nter-
national
ank
for
Reconstruction
nd
Development
oans.
A barteringfeconomicor ecurityonsiderationssfranklydvo-
cated y
one
ofthe
eaders
n
the
fight
or
FC
and
SUNFED,
Chile's
Hernan
antaCruz:
The
United
Nations
as
taken
p arms
o
repel
aggression
nd to
vindicate
ollective
ecurity.
he
main
burden
was
being
arried
y
Western
ountries.. .
If they
id
not receive
aw
materials
rom he
underdeveloped]
ountries,
hey
ould
not
physi-
cally
resist,
nd
without
heir
moral
upport
he
collective
truggle
againstggressionn thename fpeacewould egeneratento mere
fight
n
defense
fpolitical
nd
economic
nterests....
And
the om-
monman
n
the
underdeveloped
reas
would nly
upport
heUnited
Nations
nd ts
great
work
f
collective
ecurity
fhe
were
onvinced
that
ts ctionwas
part
fa
universal
ndertaking,
he bject
f
which
was to
secure
eace,
ndividual
reedom
nd
the
elf-determination
f
peoples,
nd
alsoto
provide
im
with
decent
tandard
f iving
nd
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
251
materialnd social
rogress. '5
hether
r not
he
NATO
and
Soviet
blocs ake eriously
heringing
harter hrasesdvocating
he
aims
setforth y Santa
Cruz, concern
or mobilizing
r
hamstringing
UnitedNations ecurityperationsompels ttentiono this uxta-
positionf ssues.
Initiallyt least,
heWest
pposed oth FC and SUNFED.
With
the exceptionf
Holland, he NATO and ANZUS
countries
ave
pointed
o theneed for making
verseasnvestments
ttractiveo
private nterprise
nd have tressed
he carcityfpublic ndprivate
capital or arge-scalenternational
nvestment.
omestic eeds, he
burden
f
rearmament,nd the
measuresf regional rganizations
have all figuredn the argumentf the oppositiono IFC and
SUNFED.
A
bartering
f
securityor conomic
oncessions,
owever,
as
been
featuredy the
West s well.Apparentlyoping o
outmaneuverhe
argument
f
theSUNFED
supporters,merican
elegatesxplicitly
in
952
and
953 made articipationn the
evelopmentchemeson-
tingentn savings
btainedrom
successfulrogramfglobalmulti-
lateral isarmament.espite heoutcry fopposition,hisproposal
was
to
lay the
groundworkor he
extensivealancing perationn
the
Eighth eneral ssembly.
The
position
fthe
Soviet loc, inally, as the
most
lear-cut.ike
theirWestern
ntagonists,he
Soviets aveopposed heprojects.
ut
they rgue hat FC and SUNFED
must ertainly
eadtoever-growing
dominationver
heworld conomy yAmerican
mperialists.ith-
out
any ualification,he
Communistelegates
ssert hat ll interna-
tional inancingust eadto a growthfWestern onopolies.
These
being
he
positionsaken, ow rewe
to
account
or
hefact
that esolutionspprovingoth
rojects ere assed
n
953
byunani-
mous
votes,
ith
he
Soviet
loc
abstaining? he balancing
attern
is
implicit
n
the
compromise
esolutionassed:disarmamentas
to
make
possible
conomic
evelopment,
ntensive
tudy
or
he
FC
and
SUNFED
was
to
go forward,nd
Belgium's aymond
cheyven
15As citedin RobertE. Elder and ForrestD. Murden, EconomicCooperation:
Special
United Nations Fund
for Economic
Development
SUNFED), Woodrow
Wilson
Foundation,
ew
York, September
954,
pp.
7-8.
16-See
nited
Nations,
epartment
f
Economic
Affairs,
eport
n a
Special United
NationsFund
for
Economic
Development, ew
York,
1953; United
Nations,
Official
Records f
theGeneral
Assembly,th
Session, econd
Committee,
ummary
ecordof
Meetings,
nd the same
document or
the 8th
Session.
Also
Economic
evelopment f
Underdeveloped
Countries,
U.N.
Doc
A/2430
and
A/2447;
and
Elder
and Murden,
op.cit., or
details n
the aborious
egotiations
f the
Working arty nd
the
mediating
role
played
by these
our
mavericks:
olland,Haiti,
Greece,
nd
Pakistan.
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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252
WORLD POLITICS
was to
explore
rivatelyhe
willingnessf member overnments
o
contributehe
necessaryunds.
While Western
tatesmen ade it
quite lear
hat heir ote or he
projects
id not mply eadinesso
contributeo the nstitutionsroposed,heAmericanelegate'state-
ment
n the ssuewas
sufficiently
mbiguouso encourage
xpectations
among he
underdeveloped
ountries.he true mplicationsf
the
compromise,
owever, aybe seenwithin
hecontext
f theglobal
balancing
rocess.
Thus,
heWest
learly ielded he
principleo the
Afro-Asiannd
Latin
American
locs. ymerely
ndorsingheprojects
nd-verbally
-wishing themwell,
heWestern
overnmentslso
weakened heir
oppositionothe dea.Refusaloparticipatetsome utureimewillbe
that
muchmore
difficulto
ustifyo a worldwhich
lready ccuses
the
West
f sacrificingiving
tandardso
armaments.t maybe sug-
gested,
urthermore,
hat heWest's ielding
as n turn
motivatedy
the
desire o retain
or ecurity
ssues hevotes fthe
regionalystems
standing
or economic
evelopment.s
Jonathan ingham
oted:
The
temptationo
use the
[technicalssistance] unds
or
more
spectacular
urposes,r to use
them o win
some mmediateolitical
pointfrom wavering overnmentsuchas a favorableoteon a
crucialssue n the
United
ations) reconstantndvery
reat. hose
who
are
responsible
or he
day-to-dayonduct f our
foreign olicy
are
constantly
ooking or lue
chips o playwith, nd
an appropria-
tion
f
several
million ollars or
n aid
programn an area ooks ike
a
very
ice
bluechip
ndeed. '7 fro-Asian
nd Latin
Americanco-
nomic spirations
eetWestern
ecurity
ims
and the
result s a
compromiseytheWest n thehopeofretaininghe oyaltyf some
present
r
futurealancer. ne
recent
onsequenceasbeen heAmer-
ican
decision o
contributeo
IFC,
made, ignificantly,
t the OAS
Conferencet
Rio.
Another as been
lesseningf
European pposi-
tion
o
SUNFED, as
illustratedn the
Scheyven eport o
ECOSOC.
But he
oviets
ieldedheir rincipless
well.By
abstainingnstead
of
voting
gainst he
proposals,hey oo eemed o underwrite
hede-
mands f
the
underdeveloped
ountries
n
non-Soviet
erms.
ecent
Soviet ontributionsotheUnitedNations echnical ssistancero-
grammay
be
interpreted
imilarly.
hese
tepsmply
recognition
f
and
a
yielding
o
regional
emandswhich
may
render
future
retreat
f
the
Soviet loc
quite
hazardous
n
terms
f
propaganda.
The
second
major
unctional
rea
n
which
alancingmight
e
ex-
17
Jonathan . Bingham, Partisan olitics nd Point
Four, Bulletin f the Atomic
Scientists,,
No.
3 (March
954), p. 85.
-
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INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATION
253
pected
o operates the
realm
f
nternationalolicy oward
olonial
emancipation.he crucial
ndex f
clashing egionalnd
national s-
pirationss
providedy he ual ssue f
whether
list ffactorshould
beadopted ywhich o udge hedegreefadvancementowardelf-
government
r independence
chieved
y
a
given
dependency,
nd
the
resultant
uestion
f whether
uerto
Rico,
s of
I953,
was
self-
governingrnot.
The
decision-makingrocess
isplayed
n
the
Gen-
eral
Assembly
n
this ccasion
s
likely
o
yield ome
ruitful
nsights.
A
list
f
factors as
considered
ecessaryy
majority
f
the
mem-
ber
tates
n
order
o
be able to udge
the
claims
f colonial
owers
whoceased
o
transmitnnual
eports
o theGeneral
ssembly
nder
Article3e.Byclaiminghat hepossessionsnquestion ad achieved
self-governingtatus,
he olonial
owers
ad
withdrawn
ifteen
uch
areas
rom he
cope
f
the
Charter's
hapter
I
since
947,ncluding
Puerto
ico.While
he
factors ereformulatednd
proposed
o
the
General
ssemblynly
or
urposes
f
guidance, strong
ovement
developed y I953 to vest
xclusive
ompetence
n
the
General
As-
sembly ortheapplication
f these
actors
o
any
one
territory.
t
followed,f course,hat n the futureolonial owersmust eek
United
Nations onsent
o
no
longer
eporting
n
their
ossessions;
specifically,his mplied
American
ack
of
competence
o
remove
Puerto
Rico
unilaterally
rom
United
Nations
xamination
nd dis-
cussion.
The
inter-nd
intra-regional
alancing rocess
as
defined
y
the
initial
ositions
aken
y
the
member
overnments
n
thedual
ssue
of
factors
nd
ofcompetence. 8
t one
extreme
f the
pectrum,he
West
ook
very
imview
f
thewhole
ttempt.
he
European
nd
Australasian
ations,
orvarious
easons,ejected
heprinciplef the
UnitedNations
ormulating
nd
applyingny
et
of
factors
ver
he
possible
issent
f
the
administering
tate.While
objecting itterly
to
the
vesting
f
competence
n
theGeneral
ssembly,
s
forcinghe
pace
and
timing
f
establishingelf-government
r
independence
y
an
anti-colonial
gency,
he
West
nevertheless
ished
or
majority
whichwouldrelease heUnited tates romheobligationoreport
on
Puerto
Rico, and
thus
give
a
colonial
power
clean
bill of
health.
18
These
generalizationsre basedon:
United
Nations,
fficial
ecords
f
the
General
Assembly,th
Session,
ourth
Committee,
ummary
ecord
f
Meetings,
nd the
same
document
or
the 8th Session.
Also
see Sherman
.
Hayden
and
Benjamin
Rivlin,
Non-Self-Governingerritories:
tatus
f
Puerto
Rico,
Woodrow
Wilson
Foundation,
NewYork,
eptember954.
-
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254
WORLD
POLITICS
The Soviet loc ccupiedhe ppositeole.
ull and mmediate
nde-
pendence or all
colonies
was
demanded.
o
transitional
tage
of
partial elf-governmentr lingeringssociations
ith the colonial
power fter hegrantf utonomyere dmitted,lthoughheywere
recognized
n
theGeneral
ssembly'sist
f
factors.ndeed,
he oviets
rejected hevery
dea of stating
hefactors
s
misleading
nd
prone
to introduce
emporizing
nd evasion.
While
arguing
or he
com-
petence f the GeneralAssemblyo examine
laims or
non-submis-
sionof reports
nderArticle
3e,
heCommunistlocalso
sought
o
condemn heWesterntand n Puerto
ico and obstruct
herelease
oftheUnited tates
romts bligations.
The listof factorsnd the ssue f competence,f course, ad re-
ceived heir nitial
upport rom he
combined fro-AsianndLatin
American locs.
However,herewas by
no means nanimitymong
these
nti-colonial
ations.
he
overwhelmingajority
n
bothblocs
favoredhe ist ffactors,
ut
even atinAmericanelegationsished
to
avoidthe
ssue
of
competencend
release he United tates n-
conditionallyrom
urthernternational
esponsibilitiesithrespect
to Puerto ico.To
this ourse, ost fthe
Colombo owers ndthree
Latin Americanountriesbjected, roposingnstead UnitedNa-
tions nvestigation
fPuerto ican onditionsn order o verifymer-
ican claims. he
compromiseesolution
orked ut in the Fourth
Committeeesulted
n giving heUnited tatests leanbillof
health,
but
also
asserted
he exclusive
ompetence
f the GeneralAssembly
to
decide imilarases n the uture.19
The voting
n
I953
on both
ssues
llustrates
he tensions
ithin
andamong locs. he list ffactors,or guidance nly, as adopted
by
vote
f
7
to
23,
withChina nd
Thailand
bstaining.henega-
tive oteswere ast y lmost he ntire
ATO-ANZUS ombination,
four
atinAmerican
elegations,nd thefullCommunistloc.
The
debatewas capped y declarationrom
he olonial owers hat
hey
had
no
intentionf mplementing
heresolution.ut t
was
the ssue
of Puerto ico which
aised hecompetence
uestionn full. n the
Fourth
Committee,
he
resolution
bsolving
heUnited tates rom
furtheresponsibilityut also assertingnitedNations ompetence
was
passed
2
to
i8,.
with
9
abstentions.
ost
Western
tates
oted
negativelyr abstained
ecause f the
competencessue.The Soviet
bloc
plus Burma, ndia, ndonesia,
raq, Guatemala,
Mexico, nd
Yugoslavia
oted
negatively
ecause
hey
isputed
he
attainment
f
self-governmenty
Puerto ico.
19
Proposals nd
votes re analyzed
n
Haydenand
Rivlin, p.cit., p.
i6-i9.
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255
In
theplenary
eeting
he ame
general
ally
f votes
was
obtained,
falling hort
f
the
necessary
wo-thirds
ajority.
owever,
arlier
n
the
meeting,he
Assemblyad
approved
y vote
f
0
to26
a Mexi-
canproposaloapplyhe ule f implemajorityoallquestionsnder
Chapter I.
Hence he
West, he
oviets,ndthedissident
fro-Asians
and
Latin
Americans
ere
utmaneuverednd
theresolution
as
de-
clared
dopted.he
United
tates,
hich ad
abstained
n
the
Fourth
Committeeote
because
f the
competence
ssue,was
compelled o
vote
or he
resolution
nthe
plenary
meetingn
order
ot o ose
ts
cleanbill
of health n
Puerto
ico.
In
colonial
matters,hen,
he
patternf
balancing
s
far
ess
marked
thannthe ealm feconomicevelopment.he votesnalyzedhow
veryittle
djustmentnd
compromisen
the
part fthe
two
polar
camps n
thedirection
f
thebalancing
fro-Asiannd
OAS
systems.
Thesame
onclusion
merges
rom he
ositions
akenn the
955
vote
on
Algeria.No
general
ompromise
ormula,
ompellinghe
chief
antagonistso
endorsehe
balancers'
osition,as
yet
een
developed,
as
evidenced
y
thecombined
Western
nd Soviet
ppositiono the
principleffactors. nd so long s nosuch ommitmentsobtained,
the
balancing
locs ack an
additionalever
with
which o
condition
the
West ndthe
ovietso
restraintnd
concession.
owever,t
may
well
be
that he ntroduction
f he
principlef
simple
majority
oting
will
change his
picture. o
longer
will the
polar
blocsbe
able to
count n
the
defeat f
balancing
esolutions
or
ackof a
two-thirds
majority
n
plenary
essions.f
the
principle
fbartering
ecurity
otes
for
upportn
colonial nd
economic
matters
ontinues
o be
opera-
tive, herefore,tmaywellbe surmisedhatbalancing illemerge
even n the
olonial ealm s
a
processf
considerablemportance.
l-
ready
hepolicy f
the
United
tates n
this ssue
ives
ome
upport
to
such
conjecture.
The actual
mpact
f
balancing
n
thefield f economic
evelop-
ment
nd
thepotential
f
a similar
ourse
f events
n the
colonial
realm,
hen, re
the
constituents
f a larger
nterregional
rocess
f
balancingt theUnitedNations. hepracticefcollectiveecuritys
advocated
y he
West r
the
denunciations
f t
utteredy
he
oviets
depend or
heir
nstitutional
ffectivenessn
the
ttention
iven o
the
functional
spirationsf
underdevelopednd
anti-colonial
egions.
he
Cold
War maywell
be
expected
o
deepen his
nterlockingelation-
ship
and
thereby
ncrease
he
bargainingosition f the
balancers,
especially
n
the
ealm
f
collective
ecurity.
ence
he
mobilization
f
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8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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256 WORLD POLITICS
the
United
Nations
y
one
state
r
regional ystem
ill become
ess
and
ess
ikely.
IV
It is evidenthat he
process
f
exchanging
oncessions
ithin
ach
regional ystem
s
by
no
means
uniformly
uccessful.
onsequently,
issues f
security,
conomics,
r colonial
mancipation
ay
continue
to
form he
ubstance
f
disagreement
nd
rival
spirations
ven
mong
membersf the ame
egional
ystem,
nce he
ssue
eaches
he
evel
ofUnited
Nations
iscussion. henever
uch
olidarity
s not
chieved
at the
regional
evel,
he
pportunity
or
alancing
t the
global
evel
increases,ince heregionalartnersreunder ressureoburyheir
differencesnd since
heir
pponentsersist
n
seeking
o
prevent
uch
agreement.
pportunity
or
egotiation,
aneuvering,
nd
compromise
therefore
mproves
t
theuniversalevel
s the ase
of
reachinggree-
ment
egionally
eclines.
The
net
result f
ntra-regional
nd
United
Nations
alancing ro-
cedures
ith
espect
o
the
wo
uper-powers
s
a
loss
of
the
unilateral
ability o implementational imsor dictate egional olicy. n
principle,he
United tates eeks o
mobilize
he
United
Nations
n
behalf
f thecontainment
olicy,
ttempts
o
preserve
he
unilateral
and bilateral
ature f
aid to
economic
evelopment,
nd
prefers
o
subject he
remaining
olonial
mpires
o
no
immediate
rocessfdis-
integration.
n
practice,
he
balancing rocessorces
merican
olicy-
makers
o sacrificelementsn all
these
ealms.
n
principle,
he
SovietUnion
s
eager
o
prevent
he
use of
the
United
Nations
or
containmenturposes, inder rganized chemes oreconomic e-
velopment,
nd
advance
apidly
he
dissolution
f
empires.
n
practice,
however,
he
Soviet nionnot
nly
inds
tself
nable o
achieve
hese
aims but
must
requentlyhange
ts
position
o
accommodate
tself
to
the
pressures
f
balancing.
ational
olicies,
ubjected
o
regional
balancing,
ubjected
urtheroUnited ations
ressures
nterregionally,
are
thus
n
effect
eflected
hrough
he
operations
f
nternationaln-
stitutions.he
degree
f deflection
ow
remains
o
be
demonstrated.
Clearly,he oviet loc s far ess ubjectosuchnfluenceshan re
the
American-led
ystems.
he
Soviet
ystem
s
united
n all
issues
arising
ithin
he ramework
f
nternational
rganizations.
urther,
Soviet
eadership
hich
or
actical r
strategiceasonss
uninterested
in
catering
o
any
xternal
ody
f
opinion as
nothing
o
gainby on-
cessionsnd
will
herefore
e
mpervious
o
the
orcesf
balancing.
he
fact
hatno
single
egional
ystem
ccepts
n
full he
Soviet
ositions
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATION
257
on security,
conomic
evelopment,
nd colonial mancipation
ay
therefore
e quite
rrelevant
o
balancing
perations.
n
that
vent,
negotiation
nd
compromise
annot
e
expected.
If,however,heSovieteadershiphould ollow hetacticaload
of plitting
he
Western
lliance,
he
egional
nd
functional
ynamics
of United
Nations
rocessesffer
mple
opportunity
ormaneuver.
Further,
f theKremlin
eredetermined
o
bring
bout
long-range
relaxation
n the
Cold
War, mmersion
n
the
balancing
rocess
ould
hardlye
avoided
nless
he
oviets
re
willing
orelax
ensions
urely
on
American
erms.
upport
or he
Communist
osition
must
hen
be garnered;
xternal
pinion
ecomes
ital.
Hence,
concessions
o
theAfro-Asianeutralistsecome ecessary,speciallyn therealms
of economics
nd
colonies.
imilarly,
oncessions
n security
rounds
become ital
f the
European
eutralists
re to be
wooed
way
from
too close tie
with
Washington.
fforts
osplit
he
already
enuous
SEATO community
f nterests
ight
ring
with
hem
conomic
nd
colonial oncessions
n the
Far
East
and
even he
trongly
nti-Com-
munist AS membership
ight
e
attracted
y
harping
n these
ssues.
But uccessnsuch enturestill resupposes
epartures
rom
he
basic
arguments
sed
n theUnitedNations.Whatevidences there hat
such roadhas
been
ollowed
y
Moscow?
In
the
ield
f ecurity,
t
hould
e
notedhat
he
oviet
nion
with-
drew rom
ran n 1946
partlys
a result
f
very
mild
dverse ub-
licityn
the
Security
ouncil,
ven
though
o
overwhelming
orce
was
brought
obear
on
Moscow.
he
Soviets,
urther,
onsented
o
theKorean
ruce,
espite
considerable
how
f
reluctance,
fter
he
Afro-Asianlochad taken strong and n thenegotiations-even
though
ussia tood
o
oseheavily
nprestige
n theprisoner
epatria-
tion
process.
nd
n
Indo-China,
heGeneva
ettlement
y
no
means
represents
he
est
ermshe
Communist
owers
ould
have btained-
withNATO
as
well
as Afro-Asian
ressure
gain
n
evidence.
oviet
contribution
o
the
formerly
aligned
echnical
ssistance
rogram,
participation
n
two much-denounced
pecialized
gencies,
nd the
initiation
f
bilateralconomicid
schemes
ll represent
odifications
in Soviet acticsroughtbout ythepressuresfbalancing.
The
likelihood
hat hese hanges
re expedientially
otivated
nd
imply
o basic hange
npolicy
oes
notdetract
romheir
mportance
in
terms
f
a
possible
iminution
f tensions.
n making
he
ommit-
ment,
owever ircumscribed,
opes
nd
expectations
ill be
created
in
thecolonial,
conomic,
ndsecurity
ealms
which
an
be
violated
only
t therisk
f ncurring
heenmity
f neutral
egional
locs
n
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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258
WORLD
POLITICS
some uture
ecurityssue.
hus,
alancing
ay
make
t farmore
if-
ficult or
he
Soviet
Union
to
obtainAfro-Asian
upport
or
global
propaganda
esolutions
esignedo
embarrass
heWest. or a
Soviet
Union ommittedven otheverbiagef peacefuloexistence,al-
ancing
esults
n
an
ever
more
omplex
attern
f
nterdependencies
which
asthe
umulative
ffect
f
reducing
he
urity
f
ll
national-
and
regional-policy
ositions.
Evidence hat
alancing
as
resulted
n a
deflectionfactualAmer-
ican
policys
far
more
mpressive.
f
course,
t
remains
rue
hat
commitmento a
course f
going t
alone, f
ignoring
egional
solidaritynd
United
Nations
ndorsement,
ould
render
alancing
pressurerrelevantoAmericanolicy.As in thecaseoftheSoviet
refusalo
make
ny
oncessions,o
possibility
f
negotiation
nd com-
promise
ould
hen
emain.
Yet
American
olicy as
been
oncerned
ith
chievingnd
main-
taining
he
olidarity
f
NATO,
SEATO,
and
OAS
on all
issues nd
on
all
evels.
he
heterogeneityf
he
lliance
ystems
as
not acilitated
this
ask
nd t
s
ikely
hat
he
ommunityf
nterestsn
NATO
will
sufferilutionnEuropewith he dmissionfGermany,hile he n-directssociation
f a
rearmed
apan
with
EATO is
almost
ertain
to
have
the
ame
ffectn
Asia.
Thus a
Soviet
eadership
ent
ither
on
dividing
he
West
or on
placating
issident
arts
fit
can
take
comfort
rom
he
egional
ynamicsf
global
rganizationy
catering
to
the
ounsels
f
moderation
hich
may e
addressedo
Washington
from
ondon,
aris,
nd
Tokyo.
Atthe
ame
ime,
merican
olicy-
makers
refer
o
obtain
nited
ations
ndorsementn
the
vent
hat
regional ystemsre mobilizedgainstCommunism.egional r-
rangements
will
be
employedn
the
ervice
f
Charter
rinciples
nd
will
not
degeneratento
mere
military
lliances,
mploying
orce
r
the
hreatf
force
or he
chievementf
narrow
urposes
nconsistent
with
he
Charter,
enjamin
.
Cohen
old he
General
Assembly.20
The
attainment
f
olidarity
ithin
ach
regional
ystem,he
oordina-
tion
f
these
iverse
nterests
lobally,
nd
their
ubordination
o
the
elusive
wo-thirds
ajorityf
the
General
Assemblyombine o
im-
posebalancingn theUnited tates,mplyingeparturesrom oc-
trinal
uritynd
concessions
oall
who
require
eassurance.
Within
ATO,
American
oncessions
avebeen
patent
n
the
field
of
German
earmament,
he
militarystretch-out
n
NATO,
but
most
trikingly
n
the
modification
f
America's ar
Eastern
olicy
20
Benjamin
.
Cohen,
Collective
ecurity
nder
Law,
Department
f
State
Bulletin,
XXVI,
No. 656
(January
i,
I952),
p.
Ioo.
-
8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
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INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATION
259
in
the Korean nd Indo-Chinese
rises. ATO's restraining
ole
n
Asia
is manifested
urther
n the
relatively
odest ole accorded
o
SEATO,
despite
arlier
merican emands
o the
contrary.
ithin
OAS, theconcessionatterns evidentargelyn therealms f eco-
nomics
nd
colonial
aution,
hile oncessionso theAfro-Asianeu-
tralists akethemselves
elt
n
a
reductionf
securitylaims
n
the
UnitedNations
nd
n
the
ole
ccruing
o SEATO.
Recent
oncessions
esulting
rom he
pressures
f
balancing ere
made ven
n
thecase
of Puerto ico.
The
American
nnouncement
during he
GeneralAssembly
ebate hat he sland
ommonwealth
maybe grantedndependence
fPuerto ico
requests
t
would
hardly
havebeenmadewithouthepressureftheAsian ndOAS criticsf
colonialism.
n fact, he tightrope-walking
f Americanolicy n
United
Nations
iscussions
f
colonialism
s
in itself
vidence
f the
impact f
balancing,
s demonstrated
n
the
United
tates ote or he
finalresolution
n
Puerto
Rico, despite
he obnoxious
ompetence
clause.
he
colonial
ssue
will
thus ecomemore rucial
o balancing
processes
s the
United
tates eels
ompelled
o
depart
rom
ts
NATO-
ANZUS allies.2'
The
most
triking
xample
f the
continuingmpact
f
balancing
lies
n the ield
f
he
tom.
ecent
majorhanges
n
American
trategic
planning
ertainly
re not
due
solely
o the
nfluence
f
nternational
organizations.
et
the
oincidence
f ntra-nd
nter-regional
ensions
on
the
role
of
nuclear
warfarend the
revision
f
American
olicy
statements
s most
triking.
hus massive
etaliation
as
givenway
to
a
system
n which
ocaldefensive
trength
s
reenforced
y
more
mobile eterrentower, .e., egional ilitarytrength.22nd limited
atomic
trategy
ithreliance
n tactical
uclear
weapons
as
since
emerged
s a muchmoremodest
tatement
fAmerican
ilitarylan-
ning.
The
continued
eed
felt or
he
pursuance
f
disarmament
e-
gotiations,
espite
he ack
ffaithn their
uccessndthe ontradiction
they epresent
o muchbasicAmerican
trategiclanning,
mplies
further
oncession
o the United
States'nervous
llies and
critical
neutralistntagonists.t is likely hat he UnitedNations-endorsed
scheme
or
he ndustrial
tilization
f atomic
nergy
as
nspiredy
similar
onsiderations.
ith
this ncidence
f
proposals,
teps,
nd
measures
etracting
romhedominance
fthe
purelymilitaryspects
Z1
For an
official
tatement
f
thispoint,
ee
Vernon
McKay,
The
United
States,
he
United
Nations
nd Africa,
bid., xviII,
No. 7I2 (February
6,
1953).
22
John
oster
Dulles,
Policy
orSecurity
nd
Peace,
Foreign
Affairs,
xxii,
No. 3
(April
954),
pp.
358-59.
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8/11/2019 HAAS, Ernst. Regionalism, Functionalism and Universal International Organization
24/27
260
WORLD
POLITICS
of United
Nations
trategy,
merican
olicy
s more
nd more om-
mittedo
restraint
nd
patient egotiation.
V
If the
precedingropositions
nd demonstrations
ossess
he
validity
claimed
or
hem,
herewouldno
longer
e
any
reason
or
rguing
that egional
nd
universalnternational
rganization
re
ncompati-
ble.Clearly,he
wonot
only
oexist
ut
depend
n one another.he
balancing attern
stablishes
he
descriptive
nd
conceptua