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Ground Deformation: Faulting and Folding
Earthquakes and Mountain- Building
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Earthquake Terms
• Movement of rock bodies past other rock bodies is known as an earthquake.
• The locus of earthquake movement is called a fault• Faults come in all scales; millimeters to meters of
separation of lithospheric plates.• Initial point of rupture or source is known as the focus
• The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is known as the epicenter.
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An Earthquake is a rapid vibration of the Earth’s surface
created by a sudden movement of a part of a plate along a fault.
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Energy released radiates in all Energy released radiates in all directions from its source, the directions from its source, the focusfocus
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Energy propagates in the form of Energy propagates in the form of seismic wavesseismic waves
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Three types of seismic waves
http://physicsquest.homestead.com/quest15eq.html
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Types of seismic waves
• Body waves– Travel through Earth’s interior – Two types based on mode of travel – Primary (P) waves
» Push-pull motion (compressional)» Travel thru solids, liquids & gases
– Secondary (S) waves» Moves at right angles to their direction of travel
(shear or zig/zag)» Travels only through solids
• Surface waves– Complex motion, great destruction– High amplitude and low velocity– Longest periods (interval between crests)– Termed long or L waves
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Smaller amplitude than surface (L) waves, but faster, P arrives first
P and S waves
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L-wave
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Seismographs are sensitive Seismographs are sensitive instruments around the world that instruments around the world that
record the events (Earthquakes)record the events (Earthquakes)
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Seismograph
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What is a Fault or Fault line?
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A Fault is a fracture in rock along which displacement has taken place- associated with a plate
boundary.
Faults can be active or inactive, and can be associated with either
current or old plate boundaries.
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Types of Faults
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Normal
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Reverse
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Strike-slip
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Where do Earthquakes occur?
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What causes an Earthquake??
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So, how does energy released by slippage at a fault travel through
the ground?
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Energy from an Earthquake
travels in seismic waves.
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Detecting and Locating Earthquakes
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Seismograph: A device that records earthquake waves.
Seismogram: The “picture” drawn by a seismograph.
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How far is the epicenter of an earthquake from a seismic station, if the difference between the arrival time of the P and the S wave is 5 minutes?
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The P-Wave Shadow Zone
Behavior of waves through center reveal Earth’s Interior
P-waves travel through the liquid outer core bend, leaving a low intensity shadow zone 103 to 143 degrees away from the source, here shown as the north pole
HOWEVER, P-waves traveling straight through the center continue, and because speeds in the solid inner core are faster, they arrive sooner than expected if the core was all liquid.
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The S-Wave Shadow Zone
Since Shear (S) waves cannot travel through liquids, the liquid outer core casts a larger shadow for S waves covering everything past 103 degrees away from the source.
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Folded and Faulted Mountains
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Folding creates non-volcanic mountains
• Folding occurs at convergent boundaries, more specifically, a collision boundary (two continents colliding).• Mountains form when compressional stress is applied
slowly, then solid rock will start to display plastic properties and fold.
• Anticline is a fold that is convex-up and usually has oldest rock layer (bed) of rock closer to the center.
• Syncline is a fold that is convex-down and usually has the youngest rock layer (bed) of rock closer to the center.
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Faulted Non-volcanic Mountains
Faulted mountains form when stress at plate boundaries is applied more quickly causing rock to fracture. These types of mountains are referred to fault block mountains.
• The fractures cause rock to slide either up or down forming mountains with features referred to as horst and graben.
• Horst occurs at collision boundaries• Graben occurs at divergent boundaries
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Fault-Block Mountains
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Dome Mountains
Dome mountains form from a stress that is pushing upward. Collision of continental plates cause the dome to form or possible rising magma exerts enough pressure to cause over laying rock layer to fold into a dome structure.
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Domed Mountains
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Normal
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Reverse