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Geology: Processes, Hazards, and SoilsGeology: Processes, Hazards, and Soils
Brian Kaestner
Saint Mary’s Hall
Brian Kaestner
Saint Mary’s Hall
Thanks to Miller and ClementsThanks to Miller and Clements
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Geologic ProcessesGeologic Processes
Structure ofthe Earth
Structure ofthe Earth
Mantle
Core
Crust
Low-velocity zone
Solid
Outer core(liquid)
Innercore(solid)
35 km (21 mi.) avg., 1,200˚C
2,900km(1,800 mi.)3,700˚C
5,200 km (3,100 mi.), 4,300˚C
10 to 65km
100 km
200 km
100 km (60 mi.)200 km (120 mi.)
Crust
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere(depth unknown)
Fig. 10.2, p. 212
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Composition of Earth’s CrustComposition of Earth’s CrustEarth’s CrustEarth’s Crust
Oxygen 46.6%Oxygen 46.6%
Silicon 27.7%Silicon 27.7%
All others 1.5%All others 1.5%
Magnesium 2.1%Magnesium 2.1%
Potassium 2.6%Potassium 2.6%
Sodium 2.8%Sodium 2.8%
Calcium 3.6%Calcium 3.6%
Iron 5.0%Iron 5.0%
Aluminum 8.1%Aluminum 8.1%
Fig. 10.4, p. 213
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Features of the CrustFeatures of the Crust
Oceanic crustOceanic crust(lithosphere)(lithosphere)
AbyssalAbyssalhillshills AbyssalAbyssal
floorfloorOceanicOceanic
ridgeridgeTrenchTrench
VolcanoesVolcanoes
Folded mountain beltFolded mountain belt
CratonCraton
Mantle (lithosphere)Mantle (lithosphere)
Mantle (asthenosphere)Mantle (asthenosphere)
Ab
ys
sa
l p
lain
Continental crust(lithosphere)
MantleMantle(lithosphere)(lithosphere)
Continentalrise
Continentalslope
Continentalshelf
Abyssal plain
AbyssalAbyssalfloorfloor
Fig. 10.3, p. 213
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Fig. 10.5b, p. 214
EURASIAN PLATE
CHINASUBPLATE PHILIPINE
PLATE
INDIAN-AUSTRLIAN PLATE
PACIFICPLATE
JUAN DEFUCA PLATE
COCOSPLATE
CARIBBEAN PLATE
NORTHAMERICAN
PLATE
SOUTHAMERICAN
PLATE
EURASIAN PLATE
ANATOLIAN PLATE
ARABIAN PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
CarlsbergRidge
Southwest IndianOcean Ridge
ANTARCTIC PLATE
Transformfault
East PacificRise
Transformfault
Mid-IndianOceanRidge
Southeast IndianOcean Ridge
Mid-AtlanticOceanRidge
ReykjanesRidge
Transformfault
Divergent ( ) andtransform fault ( )boundaries
Convergentplate boundaries
Plate motionat convergentplate boundaries
Plate motionat divergentplate boundaries
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Internal EarthProcessesInternal EarthProcesses
Plate tectonicsPlate tectonics
Divergent boundaryDivergent boundary
Convergent boundaryConvergent boundary
Subduction zoneSubduction zone
Transform faultTransform fault
Ring of FireRing of Fire
Lithosphere
AsthenosphereOceanic ridge at a divergentOceanic ridge at a divergentplate boundaryplate boundary
Lithosphere
TrenchTrench Volcanic island arcVolcanic island arc
Asthenosphere
Risingmagma
Subductionzone
Trench and volcanic island arc atTrench and volcanic island arc ata convergent plate boundarya convergent plate boundary
Fracture zoneFracture zone
Transformfault
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Transform fault connecting twoTransform fault connecting twodivergent plate boundariesdivergent plate boundaries
Fig. 10.6, p. 215Refer to Fig. 10-5 p. 214
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Fig. 10.6a, p. 215
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Oceanic ridge at a divergent plate boundary
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Fig. 10.6b, p. 215
Lithosphere
Trench Volcanic island arc
Asthenosphere
Risingmagma
Subductionzone
Trench and volcanic island arc at a convergentplate boundary
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Fig. 10.6c, p. 215
Fracture zone
Transformfault
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Transform fault connecting two divergent plate boundaries
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Fig. 10.7, p. 216
Dunes Lagoon
SpitsStream
Glacier
Lake
Tidalflat
Barrierislands
Shallow marineenvironment
Volcanicisland
Coral reef
Abyssal plain
Deep-sea fan
Continental shelf
Continental slope
Continental rise
DeltaDunes
Beach
Shallow marineenvironment
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External Earth ProcessesExternal Earth Processes
Erosion Erosion
Mechanical weatheringMechanical weathering
Frost wedgingFrost wedging
Chemical weatheringChemical weathering
Refer to Fig. 10-7 p. 216Refer to Fig. 10-7 p. 216
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Minerals and RocksMinerals and Rocks
Mineral (diamond, bauxite)Mineral (diamond, bauxite)
Rock TypesRock Types
Igneous (granite, lava)Igneous (granite, lava)
Sedimentary (limestone, sandstone)Sedimentary (limestone, sandstone)
Metamorphic (marble, slate)Metamorphic (marble, slate)
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The Rock CycleThe Rock Cycle
Igneous RockGranite, Pumice,
Basalt
Sedimentary RockShale, Sandstone,
Limestone
Metamorphic RockSlate, Quartzite,
Marble
Magma(Molten Rock)
WeatheringWeathering
ErosionErosion
TransportTransport DepositionDeposition
External ProcessesInternal ProcessesExternal ProcessesInternal Processes
Heat,Pressure
Heat,Pressure
Heat,
Pressure
Heat,
Pressure
Fig. 10.8, p. 217
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Natural Hazards: EarthquakesNatural Hazards: Earthquakes
Features Features
Magnitude Magnitude
Aftershocks Aftershocks
Primary effects Primary effects
Secondary effects Secondary effects
Liquefaction ofLiquefaction ofrecent sedimentsrecent sedimentscauses buildingscauses buildingsof sinkof sink
Landslides mayLandslides mayoccur onoccur onhilly groundhilly ground
ShockShockwaveswaves
EpicenterEpicenter
FocusFocus
Two adjoining platesTwo adjoining platesmove laterally alongmove laterally alongthe fault linethe fault line
Earth movementsEarth movementsCause flooding inCause flooding inLow-lying areasLow-lying areas
Fig. 10.9, p. 217
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Expected Earthquake DamageExpected Earthquake Damage
CanadaCanada
United StatesUnited States
No damage expectedNo damage expected
Minimal damageMinimal damage
Moderate damageModerate damage
Severe damageSevere damage
Fig. 10.10, p. 218
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Natural Hazards: Volcanic EruptionsNatural Hazards: Volcanic Eruptions
extinctvolcanoes
magmareservoir
centralvent
magmaconduit
SolidSolidlithospherelithosphere
Upwellingmagma Partially moltenPartially molten
asthenosphereasthenosphere
Fig. 10.11, p. 218See Spotlight p. 219
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Fig. 10.5a, p. 214Volcanoes Earthquakes
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Soils: FormationSoils: Formation
Soil horizonsSoil horizons Soil profile Soil profile Humus Humus
O horizonO horizonLeaf litterLeaf litter
A horizonA horizonTopsoilTopsoil
B horizonB horizonSubsoilSubsoil
C horizonC horizonParentParent
materialmaterial
Mature soilMature soil
Young soilYoung soil
RegolithRegolithRegolithRegolith
BedrockBedrockBedrockBedrock
Immature soilImmature soil
Fig. 10.12, p. 220
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Fig. 10.13, p. 221
Flatworm
Rove beetle
AntCentipede
Mite
Pseudoscorpion
Groundbeetle
Adultfly
Millipede
Flylarvae
Sowbug
Mite
Earthworms
Slug
Snail
Roundworms
Protozoa
Bacteria
Organic debris
BeetleMites
Fungi
Springtail
Actinomycetes
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Soil PropertiesSoil Properties
Infiltration Infiltration
Leaching Leaching
Porosity/permeability Porosity/permeability
Texture Texture
Structure Structure
pH pH
100%clay100%clay
IncreasingIncreasingpercentage siltpercentage silt
IncreasingIncreasingpercentage claypercentage clay
00
2020
4040
6060
8080
8080
6060
4040
2020
00100%sand100%sand 8080 6060 4040 2020 100%silt100%silt
Increasing percentage sandIncreasing percentage sand
Fig. 10.16, p. 224
Water Water
High permeability Low permeability
Fig. 10.17, p. 224
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Fig. 10.17, p. 224
Water Water
High permeability Low permeability
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Fig. 10.16, p. 224
100%clay
Increasingpercentage silt
Increasingpercentage clay
0
20
40
60
80
80
60
40
20
0
100%sand 80 60 40 20 100%silt
Increasing percentage sand
sandyclay
clay
siltyclay
silty clayloam
clayloam
loam siltyloam
silt
sandy clayloam
sandyloam
loamy sandsand
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Table 10-1 p. 225Table 10-1 p. 225
Texture Nutrient Infiltration Water-Holding Aeration TilthCapacity Capacity
Clay Good Poor Good Poor Poor
Silt Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Sand Poor Good Poor Good Good
Loam Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Fig. 10.15b, p. 223
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Fig. 10.15a, p. 223
Weak humus-mineral mixture
Mosaicof closelypackedpebbles,boulders
Dry, brown toreddish-brownwith variableaccumulationsof clay, calciumcarbonate, andsoluble salts
Desert Soil(hot, dry climate)
Grassland Soil(semiarid climate)
Alkaline,dark,and richin humus
Clay,calciumcompounds
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Fig. 10.15b, p. 223
Acidiclight-coloredhumus
Iron andaluminumcompoundsmixed withclay
Forest litterleaf mold
Humus-mineralmixture
Light, grayish-brown, silt loam
Dark brownFirm clay
Acid litterand humus
Humus andiron andaluminumcompounds
Light-coloredand acidic
Tropical Rain Forest Soil(humid, tropical climate)
Deciduous Forest Soil(humid, mild climate)
Coniferous Forest Soil(humid, cold climate)
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Areas of serious concern
Areas of some concern
Stable or nonvegetative areas
Global Soil ErosionGlobal Soil Erosion
Fig. 10.19, p. 226
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Fig. 10.20, p. 227
Colorado Kansas
DustBowl
Oklahoma
New Mexico
Texas
MEXICO
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Soils: DegradationSoils: Degradation
DesertificationDesertification
Salinization Salinization
WaterloggingWaterlogging
EvaporationTranspiration
Evaporation
Waterlogging
Less permeableclay layer
Fig. 10.22, p. 229
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Fig. 10.21, p. 228
Moderate Severe Very Severe
desertificationdesertification
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Fig. 10.23, p. 229
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Solutions: Soil ConservationSolutions: Soil Conservation
Conventional-tillageConventional-tillage
Conservation tillage Conservation tillage
Cropping methods Cropping methods
WindbreaksWindbreaks
Land ClassificationLand Classification
Refer to Fig. 10-24 p. 230Refer to Fig. 10-24 p. 230
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Fig. 10.24d, p. 230
Windbreaks
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Fig. 10.24c, p. 230
Alley cropping
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Fig. 10.24b, p. 230
Control planting and strip cropping
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Soil RestorationSoil Restoration
Organic fertilizerOrganic fertilizer
Animal manureAnimal manure
Green manureGreen manure
CompostCompost
Crop rotationCrop rotation
Commercial inorganic fertilizerCommercial inorganic fertilizer