Gender AttitudesGender Attitudes
OutlineOutline
Cultural approachesCultural approaches Why are attitudes changing in Central Why are attitudes changing in Central
Europe?Europe? Micro-level explanations of gender Micro-level explanations of gender
attitudesattitudes
The Modernization The Modernization Explanation Explanation
(Inglehart & Norris)(Inglehart & Norris) Industrialization brings women into the labor Industrialization brings women into the labor
marketmarket Educational opportunities rise for women and Educational opportunities rise for women and
they begin to participate in governmentthey begin to participate in government The postindustrial phase brings a shift toward The postindustrial phase brings a shift toward
greater gender equality as women rise in greater gender equality as women rise in management and gain political influencemanagement and gain political influence
Transition from survival to self-expression Transition from survival to self-expression values (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?)values (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?)
The Failure of The Failure of Modernization Theory to Modernization Theory to Explain this Shift in Central Explain this Shift in Central EuropeEurope High female employed existed already High female employed existed already
under the communist regimeunder the communist regime Women had rather equal access to Women had rather equal access to
education already under communist ruleeducation already under communist rule People did not have to worry about People did not have to worry about
survival except perhaps in Polandsurvival except perhaps in Poland
But not completely wrongBut not completely wrong
But it is true that women did not yet rise But it is true that women did not yet rise in management or politicsin management or politics
The industrial shift from an industrial to a The industrial shift from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy with a large knowledge-based economy with a large service sector was hindered by the service sector was hindered by the communist regimescommunist regimes
This does not seem sufficient to explain This does not seem sufficient to explain the changethe change
Cultural Differences?Cultural Differences? Pfau-Effinger: two countries can have similar Pfau-Effinger: two countries can have similar
policies, but peple will still use them differentlypolicies, but peple will still use them differently In some societies men are more likely to In some societies men are more likely to
choose father leaves than in others because choose father leaves than in others because they have different conceptions of the role of they have different conceptions of the role of the fatherthe father
Duncan: Gendered moral rationalities: what is Duncan: Gendered moral rationalities: what is morally rational is not always economically morally rational is not always economically rational, for example, women might refuse rational, for example, women might refuse daycare because it goes against their view of daycare because it goes against their view of what is “proper”what is “proper”
Hakim’s Preference Hakim’s Preference TheoryTheory
Individualization process means we Individualization process means we cannot group people of one country cannot group people of one country togethertogether
In modern society we have become more In modern society we have become more individualisticindividualistic
There are different groups in every There are different groups in every countrycountry
Hakims 3 GroupsHakims 3 Groups
Caring group: will want to stay at home Caring group: will want to stay at home regardless of policies (about 20% of the regardless of policies (about 20% of the population)population)
Career group: wants to have a career Career group: wants to have a career and is not interested in having children and is not interested in having children (about 20% of the population)(about 20% of the population)
Adaptive group: will choose work or Adaptive group: will choose work or career depending on incentivescareer depending on incentives
Implications of Implications of Preference TheoryPreference Theory
We cannot achieve gender equality because We cannot achieve gender equality because men do not want to change roles, only womenmen do not want to change roles, only women
In Sweden, despite policies encouring men to In Sweden, despite policies encouring men to stay at home, few do sostay at home, few do so
Only the adoptive group can be influenced by Only the adoptive group can be influenced by policiespolicies
The three groups have competing interests, The three groups have competing interests, while men all have the same interests,while men all have the same interests,
Thus, men can organize better around their Thus, men can organize better around their interestsinterests
CriticismsCriticisms
Men are stupid, but not as stupid as Hakim thinks, nor Men are stupid, but not as stupid as Hakim thinks, nor are they as homogeneous are they as homogeneous
In Sweden men In Sweden men areare beginning to take father leaves to beginning to take father leaves to a much greater extent (now they take over 20% of the a much greater extent (now they take over 20% of the total leave time and almost all fathers go on leave)total leave time and almost all fathers go on leave)
Gender equality is also in the interests of many men. Gender equality is also in the interests of many men. She just assumes men think the same, but does not She just assumes men think the same, but does not provide evidenceprovide evidence
Surveys show big differences among women in Surveys show big differences among women in different countriesdifferent countries
The largest group is adoptive, which means that The largest group is adoptive, which means that policies policies do in fact matter in fact matter
Attitudes Changing in Attitudes Changing in Central EuropeCentral Europe
Slowly beginning to support more gender Slowly beginning to support more gender equality at the theoretical levelequality at the theoretical level
Great support for more gender equality at Great support for more gender equality at the concrete daily levelthe concrete daily level
““Feminism” becoming more acceptableFeminism” becoming more acceptable
Theoretical level: Support Theoretical level: Support for Equal Gender Rolesfor Equal Gender Roles
% Disagreeing that men should work and women should stay home
020406080
100
PL Cz Sw FRG EUW
1994 2002
Concrete, Daily Level:Concrete, Daily Level:
0102030405060708090
100
CZ94 CZ02 PL94 PL02 S94 S02
Percentage of Women Supporting Gender Equality (ISSP)
home equality mother-child rel state support
Women’s organizationsWomen’s organizations
In Poland: 133 women's organizationsIn Poland: 133 women's organizations 50 consider themselves to be feminist (38%)50 consider themselves to be feminist (38%) 93 support gender equality (70%)93 support gender equality (70%) In CR: 49 organizationsIn CR: 49 organizations 6 show some support for feminism (6%)6 show some support for feminism (6%) 18 show support for gender equality (37%)18 show support for gender equality (37%) 1995 in CR: none openly supported gender 1995 in CR: none openly supported gender
equality, but 2 of 31 came closeequality, but 2 of 31 came close
Newspaper Articles in the Newspaper Articles in the CRCR
In MF there were 15 articles in 2007 In MF there were 15 articles in 2007 using the word “feminism”using the word “feminism”
Not negative anymore, but there is a Not negative anymore, but there is a defensive tone, the need to show defensive tone, the need to show feminists are not radicalfeminists are not radical
Typical to use the term, “I am a feminist, Typical to use the term, “I am a feminist, but not a radical feminist….”but not a radical feminist….”
Why this change?Why this change? The EU gave legitimacy with “gender The EU gave legitimacy with “gender
mainstreaming”mainstreaming” Czechs have more experience living and Czechs have more experience living and
studying in the Weststudying in the West The development of domestic gender studiesThe development of domestic gender studies Cooperation with Western and international Cooperation with Western and international
women’s organizationswomen’s organizations Can we call these openings of the political Can we call these openings of the political
opportunity structure?opportunity structure? Beliefs coming from communist legacy not as Beliefs coming from communist legacy not as
strong as other beliefs?strong as other beliefs?
Microlevel AnalysisMicrolevel Analysis
AgeAge ChurchChurch Degree of religiosityDegree of religiosity Educational LevelEducational Level GenderGender
AgeAge
Generational difference: younger people Generational difference: younger people have more post-modern valueshave more post-modern values
Today’s women have greater career Today’s women have greater career opportunitiesopportunities
Younger men are more interested in Younger men are more interested in spending time with their childrenspending time with their children
Church and Degree of Church and Degree of ReligiosityReligiosity
The Catholic Church has traditionally supported the The Catholic Church has traditionally supported the “nuclear family” and “traditional” roles“nuclear family” and “traditional” roles
But this traditional family only existed for a very short But this traditional family only existed for a very short time in our historytime in our history
In agricultural society women worked, as did children In agricultural society women worked, as did children and the family was extendedand the family was extended
Degree of religiosity is important (not in Wilcox’ article) Degree of religiosity is important (not in Wilcox’ article) because in a country like Poland, almost everyone is because in a country like Poland, almost everyone is Catholic, but not everyone is as religiousCatholic, but not everyone is as religious
In the USA evangelical pastors have been very In the USA evangelical pastors have been very conservativeconservative
In Poland the degree of religiosity is not significant in In Poland the degree of religiosity is not significant in explaining attitudesexplaining attitudes
Educational LevelEducational Level
Those with a higher education are more Those with a higher education are more supportive of gender equalitysupportive of gender equality
Women with higher education want equal Women with higher education want equal chanceschances
Men with higher education often chose Men with higher education often chose partners who are higher educated and partners who are higher educated and want to have careerswant to have careers
Educational levels are increasing, as is Educational levels are increasing, as is support for gender equalitysupport for gender equality
McDonald’s incoherence McDonald’s incoherence theorytheory
in the industrially advanced countries the in the industrially advanced countries the conflict between norms supporting high conflict between norms supporting high levels of gender equity in individual-levels of gender equity in individual-oriented social institutions (like education oriented social institutions (like education system and labor market) and sustained system and labor market) and sustained gender inequality in family-oriented social gender inequality in family-oriented social institutions (in caring and nurturing and institutions (in caring and nurturing and household maintenance) has caused household maintenance) has caused fertility rates to drop.fertility rates to drop.
Gender differencesGender differences
Women obviously have a greater Women obviously have a greater incentive to support equalityincentive to support equality
But in America more men than women But in America more men than women supported ERAsupported ERA
ConclusionsConclusions Attitudes toward gender equality are becoming Attitudes toward gender equality are becoming
more positive more positive This is partially due to post-modernization and This is partially due to post-modernization and
to the development of the international to the development of the international discoursediscourse
All micro factors point to an increase in support All micro factors point to an increase in support for gender equality (the new generation and for gender equality (the new generation and higher educated are more positives as are the higher educated are more positives as are the more secular)more secular)
Life is becoming increasingly more difficult for Life is becoming increasingly more difficult for men who want to oppress women and hate men who want to oppress women and hate their childrentheir children