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Language as an adaptive system
Language structure is influenced by many pressures
LANGUAGE
Conveyvariedmeanings!
ExpressmyidenFty!
Beeasytolearn!
Beeasytoproduce! Beeasytounderstand!
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Language as an adaptive system
LANGUAGE
Expressivity
Learnability
Conveyvariedmeanings!
ExpressmyidenFty!
Beeasytolearn!
Beeasytoproduce! Beeasytounderstand!
Language structure is influenced by many pressures
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Overview
1. Form-meaning systematicity
2. Exploring systematicity in Natural Language: A corpus study
3. Systematicity and compositionality in Artificial Languages: An experimental approach
4. Implications for language evolution
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1. Systematicity between forms and meanings in language
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Systematicity
• TherelaFonshipbetweentwospacesissystemaFcifthestructureofonespacereflectsthestructureoftheother
• Thereforeknowingaboutonestructureprovidesuswithsomeknowledgeabouttheother
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Systematicity in language PhonologicalformssystemaFcallyreflectmorphosyntax
DoesitreflectsemanFcs??
present past 3rd person
talk talked talks
play played plays
study studied studies
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A systematic lexicon
Wordsthatsoundsimilartendtohavesimilarmeanings
Meaningspace
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SystemaFcityreflectsapreferenceforisomorphic/topographic/systemaFcrepresentaFonsinthenervoussystem
Systematic lexicon – Why?
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FuncFonsofsystemaFcity:
• Helplearn/understandnewitems
• AllowcreaFvityandgeneralisaFon
Systematic lexicon – What for?
Meaningspace
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2. Exploring systematicity in Natural Language: A corpus study
(Tamariz 2005, 2008)
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Hypothesis:ThestructureofthementallexiconshowssystemaFcitybetweenformsandmeanings
Method:QuanFtaFvecorpusstudy
Data:Threesubsetsofa1MwordSpanishtranscribedspeechcorpus(MarcosMarin,1992)
252CVCV
146CVCCV
148CVCVCV
Twostudies:
SyntaxandsemanFcs
SemanFcsonly
Looking for systematicity in the lexicon
wordsoffrequency>=20
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Measuring systematicity
DistribuFonalsimilarity(Landauer&Dumais,1997;MacDonald,2000)
Phonologicalsimilarity(Tamariz2005,2008)
kasa
lima
nene
kita
kasa
kita lima
nene
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Measuring systematicity
DistribuFonalsimilarity(Landauer&Dumais,1997;MacDonald,2000)
Phonologicalsimilarity(Tamariz2005,2008)
k-a-s-a k-i-t-a
v1, v2, v12 c1, c2, c12 stress1, stress2
strv1, strv2 (syntax)
Patterns of coocurrence with:
394 words (Stx+Sem) 320 content words (Sem)
of freq >=200
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Measuring systematicity
Phonologicalsimilarity
DistribuFonalsimilarity
FisherdivergenceFD=1.4
(significanceestablishedwithMonteCarloanalysis)kasa
lima
nene
kita
kasa
kita lima
nene
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Result
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Result
Wordsthatsoundsimilardotendtohavesimilarmeanings
ThereissystemaFcitybetweenformandmeaninginthelexicon
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Result
Wordsthatsoundsimilardotendtohavesimilarmeanings
However,toomuchsystemaFcitymayposeaproblemforcomprehension!
ThereissystemaFcitybetweenformandmeaninginthelexicon
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Systematicity vs. disambiguation
kiri
kili kini
kisi
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• Thelexiconstructureisunderpressure
1. TobesystemaFc(whichhelpsprocessingandlearning)
2. ToavoidambiguiFesderivedfromsystemaFcity
Hypothesis:
Thestructureofthementallexiconisshapedbythesetwoopposedpressures
• SomeaspectsofformssystemaFcallyreflectthestructureofwordmeanings
• Otheraspectsofformsshouldhave“negaFvesystemaFcity”withrespecttowordmeanings
The phonological correlates of systematicity
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Method
MeasuresystemaFcitybetween
• DistribuFonalsimilarityand
• Phonologicalsimilarityintermsof
‐ Consonants
‐ Vowels
‐ Stresspagerns
E.g.Dowordsthatsharethefirstconsonanttendtohavesimilarmeanings?
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Results TheimpactofdifferentphonologicalparametersonsystemaFcity
consonantsvowelsstress
Allvaluesp<0.01exceptwherestated
CVCVwords
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Results TheimpactofdifferentphonologicalparametersonsystemaFcity
consonantsvowelsstress
Allvaluesp<0.01exceptwherestated
CVCVwords
• ConsonantshaveposiFveimpact
• Vowels,negaFveimpact
• StressedvowelinthepenulFmatesyllable,negaFveimpact
• Otherstress,posiFveimpact
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Results TheimpactofdifferentphonologicalparametersonsystemaFcity
consonantsvowelsstress
Allvaluesp<0.01exceptwherestated
CVCVCVwords
• ConsonantshaveposiFveimpact
• Vowels,mostlynegaFveimpact
• StressedvowelinthepenulFmatesyllable,negaFveimpact
• Otherstress,posiFveimpact
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Results TheimpactofdifferentphonologicalparametersonsystemaFcity
consonantsvowelsstress
Allvaluesp<0.01exceptwherestated
CVCCVwords
• Consonantshavemixedimpact
• Vowels,mostlynegaFveimpact
• StressedvowelinthepenulFmatesyllable,negaFveimpact
• Otherstress,posiFveimpact
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Discussion IntheSpanishlexicon…
• Thestructureofconsonants,stresspagernandthestressedfinalvowelhasadaptedtothepressureforsystemaFcity
• Thestructureofvowels,especiallythestressedvowelinthepenulFmatesyllablehasadaptedtothepressureforeasydisambiguaFon
• TheseresultssupportthehypothesisthatthelexiconisanadapFvesystem,evolvingundermulFplepressures
(OtherlanguagesmayhavefounddifferentsoluUonstothisconflict)
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3. Systematicity and compositionality in Artificial Languages:
An experimental approach
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Systematicity and compositionality
HolisFc
lop=
mer=
sus=
pina=
e=
koF=
• ComposiFonalityisaspecialtypeofsystemaFcitybetweenformsandmeanings
“InacomposiFonalsystem,themeaningofanexpressionisafuncFonofthemeaningofitscomponentparts,plusthewaythepartsarecombinedtogether”
+
+
+
lopi loto
napi nato
mepi meto
+
+
+
lop mer
sus pina
e koF
ComposiFonal
lo‐=
na‐=
me‐=
‐pi=
‐to=+
+
+
+
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Compositionality and Expressivity
ComposiFonalityfacilitatesemergentcategoriesandgeneralisaUon
(Ifthemeaningspaceisstructured)
+
+
+
lopi loto
napi nato
mepi meto
+
+
+
lop mer
sus pina
e koF
ComposiFonal
lo‐=
na‐=
me‐=
‐pi=
‐to=+
• Extrameanings:
1=outsideshape
2=insert
• GeneralisaFonpossible
HolisFc
lop=
mer=
sus=
pina=
e=
koF=
• Noextrameanings
• GeneralisaFonnotpossible
+
+
+
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Why is language compositional?
• ThestructureoflanguageevolvedoverthousandsofhumangeneraFonswholearnitandthenuseit
• WeassumethatiniFallylanguagewasnotcomposiFonal(e.g.Wray,2002)
• Howdiditcometohavethisstructure?
– Theroleofindividuallearning
– Theroleofculturaltransmission
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The role of individual learning (Tamariz & Smith 2008)
• Hypothesis– ThereisalearningbiasfavouringcomposiFonalmappings
betweensignalsandmeanings
• PredicFon– MorecomposiFonallanguagesareeasiertolearn
• Test– ArFficialLanguageLearningexperiment– ConstructarFficiallanguageswithdifferentlevelsof
composiFonalityandseewhicharebegerlearned
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Artificial languages
MEANINGS
27differentmeanings
+
FORMS
3‐syllablepseudowords
27differentforms
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Procedure
Training
hune
lene
letupi
miko
lekono
TesFng
1.Signals
Task:Typename
2.Meanings
Task:Selectpicture
lekono
_
27screensx3Fmes
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Variables
• Independentvariable
4levelsofinputlanguagecomposiFonality
LANG1 LANG2 LANG3 LANG4
RegMap0.154 0.456 0.754 1.00
• Dependentvariable
Learnability– MeasuringhowwellthecomposiFonallanguagestructurewas
learned
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Measuring Compositionality (RegMap)
RegMap measures the confidence that a signal and a meaning are unambiguously and consistently associated
lene
letu
hune
leko
Co-occur Freq
le - 3 2 2
- ne 2 - ko 2
miko
√
√
€
RegMap(X | Y ) = 1− H (X | Y )log(nx )
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Results
Learnability of the compositional language structure
Similarity of compositional language structure of input and output languages
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Results and discussion
MorecomposiFonallanguagestructuresarelearntbeger
ParFcipantsseemstohavealearningbiasforcomposiFonality
IndividuallearningmayhaveplayedaroleinlanguagebecomingcomposiFonal
Learnability of the compositional language structure
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Results and discussion
MorecomposiFonallanguagestructuresarelearntbeger
ParFcipantsseemstohavealearningbiasforcomposiFonality
IndividuallearningmayhaveplayedaroleinlanguagebecomingcomposiFonal
Learnability of the compositional language structure
Butwheredoesthisbiascomefrom?
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The role of enculturation (Brown & Tamariz, 2008)
• Hypothesis– ThelearningpreferenceforcomposiFonalstructureisgivenby
culturalknowledgesuchasliteracy
• PredicFon– LiteratesarebegeratlearningcomposiFonallanguagesthan
illiterates
• Test– MusicalArFficialLanguageLearningexperiment
– ConstructarFficialmusicallanguageswithdifferent levelsofcomposiFonalityandseewhicharebeger learned
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Procedure
Training
hune
miko
TesFng
Signals
Task:Singtune
27screensx3Fmes
lene
lekono
27signalspresented
letupi
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Variables
• Independentvariables– 3levelsofinputlanguagecomposiFonality
LANG1 LANG2 LANG3
RegMap 0.004 0.66 1.00
– 2levelsofmusicalliteracy(literate/illiterate)
• Dependentvariable– LearnabilityofthecomposiFonalstructureoflanguages
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Results
ItseemsthatliteracyenhancesthepreferenceforlearningcomposiFonalsystems
Learnability of the compositional language structure
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Discussion: The role of individual learning
• TheseresultsindicatethatindividuallearningmayincreaselanguagecomposiFonality
• Thiseffectmaybeenhancedbyculturalknowledgesuchasliteracy
• ButlanguageevolvedasitwastransmigedovermanygeneraFons…
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The role of cultural transmission (Kirby, Cornish & Smith, 2008)
• Hypothesis– Culturaltransmissioncontributestotheemergenceof
systemaFcstructureinlanguage
• PredicFon– Theeffectsofindividuallearningareenhancediniterated
learning
• Test– IteratedArFficialLanguageLearningexperiment
– MeasuresystemaFcityandlearnability
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kimako
koni
kanige
kuni
winige
komako
Genera/on0:randomsignals
MEANINGS
27differentmeanings
Languages and procedure
Genera/on1
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• OneoftheiniFalrandomlanguages
Results
huhunigu kemuniwa
kihupo
wakiki pokiheku waguhuki
nihu niguki koni
muwapo powa
hukinimu
wako hukeko pohumu
muko kokeguke
kimu
kekewa konihuke
kopo
huwa hukike
ponikiko
kowagu kokihuko kiwanike
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• ThesamelanguagesomegeneraFonslater
Results
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• LanguagesareincreasinglysystemaFcandlearnable
Results
Learning error Systematicity
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• LanguagesareincreasinglysystemaFcandlearnable• Composi/onalityisapparent,butitisnotquan/fied
Results
Learning error Systematicity
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• ForeachgeneraFon,calculateRegMapofallpairsofmeaningandformdimensions
E.g.forGeneraFon2:
Quantifying compositionality (Cornish, Tamariz & Kirby, in press)
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Segment 1
Results
Emergence of compositionality over cultural transmission
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Segment 2
Emergence of compositionality over cultural transmission
Results
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Segment 3
Emergence of compositionality over cultural transmission
Results
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Discussion
• WehaveobservedapreferenceforindividualstolearnsystemaFclanguages
• ThatpreferencemaybeenhancedbyculturalinsFtuFonssuchasliteracyandteaching
• CulturaltransmissioncanmediatetheaccumulaFonoflanguagesystemaFcityoverFme
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Conclusion
• Manypressures,someFmesconflicFng,havelestheirmarkonlanguagestructureoveritslongevoluFonaryhistory.
• Thebalanceofsystema/cityinlanguageisanadaptaFontomanyfactors
– Neuralconstraints(preferenceforisomorphic,systemaFcmappings)
– Learnedbiases(livinginastructured,culturalworld,welearntoexpectstructure)
– LanguagefuncFon(theneedtoproduceandunderstandflexibly)
– CulturaltransmissionovergeneraFons
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References • Tamariz(2005).ExploringtheadapFvestructureofthementallexicon(unpublished
PhDthesis).
• Tamariz(2008).ExploringsystemaFcitybetweenphonologicalandcontext‐cooccurrencerepresentaFonsofthementallexicon.TheMentalLexicon,3(2):259‐278.
• Kirby,Cornish&Smith(2008).CumulaFveCulturalEvoluFonintheLaboratory:anexperimentalapproachtotheoriginsofstructureinhumanlanguage.PNAS,105(31):10681‐10686.
• Tamariz&Smith(2008).QuanFfyingtheregularityofthemappingsbetweensignalsandmeanings.In:A.D.M.Smith,K.Smith,R.FerreriCancho,Eds.,TheevoluUonoflanguage,pp.315‐322.
• Tamariz(inpress).CouldarbitraryimitaFonandpagerncompleFonhavebootstrappedhumanlinguisFccommunicaFon?InteracUonStudies.
• Cornish,Tamariz&Kirby(2010).ComplexadapFvesystemsandtheoriginsofadapFvestructure:whatexperimentscantellus.SpecialissueonLanguageasacomplexAdapFveSystem.LanguageLearning:59:4S1.
• Brown,J.E.andTamariz,M.(2010).TheroleofliteracyandpracFceintheevoluFonoflinguisFcstructure.In:A.D.M.Smith,B.deBoer,M.Schouwstra,Eds.,TheevoluUonoflanguage.