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For Sustainable Development: SomeAspects on Energy and Environment inTurkeyH. Salvarli aa Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir Vocational School , Buca-Izmir, TurkeyPublished online: 09 Sep 2009.
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Energy Sources, Part B, 4:356–364, 2009
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1556-7249 print/1556-7257 online
DOI: 10.1080/15567240701621190
For Sustainable Development: Some Aspects on
Energy and Environment in Turkey
H. SALVARLI1
1Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir Vocational School, Buca-Izmir, Turkey
Abstract The high energy demand in Turkey is closely linked to economic growth,industrialization, and population increase. Turkish general energy policies are de-
signed to support economic and social development. Natural conditions of Turkeyare favorable for utilization of new and renewable energies, such as hydraulic energy,
geothermal energy, wind energy, biomass energy, solar energy, and, probably, nuclearenergy. As the use of hydraulic and coal in Turkey will reach its full capacity by
2020, imported natural gas, coal, and other resources will be used to meet the energydemand. By 2020, approximately 75% of final energy demand and 67% of electricity
supply will be met by coal, oil, and natural gas. Energy investments, which are closelyrelated with the environmental protection, require massive financial resources. It is
also important to use standardized equipment and materials in all areas of energygeneration, transmission, distribution, and trade. For a sustainable development, the
next investments on industry should be made for the clean technologies in regard withbeing environment-friendly.
Keywords development, energy, environment, sustainable, Turkey
Introduction
In the 21st century, the five most important materials that should be looked for include:
food, water, soil, air, and energy. At present, the preferential choices in energy systems
are made according to the inputs of economical, political, and partly environment andhuman life. Energy requirements for human beings has increased sharply throughout
the development of civilization, and there is a firm relationship between the level of
development and amount of energy consumed in a country.
The primary energy resources (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) are scarce, and their
use with inferior technologies results in an energy generation at non-optimal prices anddamage to the environment. To guarantee the energy needs of a country, the environment,
cultural heritage, and rich natural sources should be considered. There is no equal
relationship between the supply and demand functions in energy utilities. The national
energy policy of many countries is now saving energy and utilization of domestic energy
sources. In the coming decades, responses to environmental issues are to affect patterns
of energy use in Turkey also.Turkey is an energy-importing country, more than half of its energy requirement being
met by imports (MENR, 2006). The most significant recent change in the structure of
Address correspondence to Huseyin Salvarli, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir Vocational School,Buca-Izmir 35160, Turkey. E-mail: [email protected]
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Turkish fuel consumption has been the increase in electricity and natural gas consumption
(BOTAS, 2006).
Energy is the key to industrial development, leading to the economic and social pros-
perity. In order to improve economy, support ecology, and save energy, the planning and
construction of industrial plants must be undertaken for the benefit of the environment.
Under these circumstances, some legislative or tax advantages must be provided to theproducers and consumers. The demand for energy increases tremendously. At present,
77% of world energy production is consumed by 28% of the world’s population living
in the industrial countries. The world’s population is expected to reach 9.1 billion in
2050, which is about 1.5 times that of today’s population (UN, 2005). Ninety percent
of the population growth will be in the developing countries, which already have morethan three-quarters of the world’s population. Thus, there will be a great energy demand
almost tripling it by 2050, even if the developed countries adopt more effective energy
conservation policies so that their energy consumption does not increase at all over that
period. However, developing countries and residents of rural areas often must construct
their own elecricity generating facilities.
Energy generation of Turkey from its own domestic resources is, at present, about40% and is expected to be at 20% by 2020 (MENR, 2006). Thus, Turkey will be
forced to import energy in increasing proportions. Turkey’s energy strategy is aimed
at satisfying demand without preventing economic growth. The Turkish Ministry of
Energy and Natural Resources (MENR) prepares energy generation and demand plans in
accordance with the growth targets given by the State Planning Organization (DPT, 2006).Plans are closely related to factors, such as development, industrialization, urbanization,
technology, and conservation. The goverment has already developed an energy policy
which is related to supplying high quality, reliable, and inexpensive forms of energy to
the consumers in a timely manner. To meet such an energy demand for new energy plans,
Turkey needs to spend approximately US$130 billion up to 2020 (DPT, 2006).At present, use of fossil fuels with high sulphur and ash content, old combustion
technologies and out-of-date industrial premises, insufficient use of air pollution control
devices, and insufficient insulation practices are some of the main causes of air pollution
problems due to energy utilization in Turkey. On the other hand, intensive urbanization
due to chanty town development has already resulted in considerably high air pollution
in and around many Turkish cities since the 1980s. In connection with Turkey’s growth,industrialization, sustainable development, and population increase, there have been sub-
stantial problems in meeting, especially, air quality requirements and adding flue gas
desulfurization systems to existing major plants and plants under development.
To obtain a sustainable and steady development in an environmentally-friendly way,
the present insufficient and old technologies of industrial process plants must be mod-ernized towards the standard limits. To cost-effectively improve the environment, the
clean power generation is required to meet the growing worldwide energy demand while
conserving resources.
Electricity production has been growing very rapidly. Turkey has aimed at improving
domestic production by utilizing public, private, and foreign utilities and increasing effi-ciency by rehabilitation and acceleration of existing construction programs to initiate new
investments. Since the 1980s, the state monopoly in generation, transmission, distribution,
and trading of electricity has been abolished, and within this framework, necessary legal
models have been practiced in Turkey. In order to overcome financial constraints, some
models have been provided through formulas such as BOT—“Built-Operate-Transfer,”
BO—“Built-Own-Operate,” and TOR—“Transfer of Operating Rights” in the electricity
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358 H. Salvarli
sector. It is also a known fact that special attention has been given to the industrial auto-
producer concept, and thus cogeneration, which is the most efficient and environmentally
friendly method of generating thermal energy, is built by private autoproducer companies.
As the non-availability of long-term treasury guarantees for power purchase agreements
of BO projects may have some disadvantages on the country’s policy, a number of
autoproducer projects will be favored during the years ahead. On the other hand, forsupporting to meet energy needs of Turkish industry at competitive cost, the independent
power producers (IPPs) have established and provided plenty of small- to medium-sized
power generating projects for industry. Thus, such power plants supply energy close to
consumers and also run on several alternative fuels. In Turkey, The Electricity Generation
Company (EUAS) is a state-owned company and carries on as being sole owner of powerplants of which operating rights will be transferred to private companies. At present,
the EUAS still controls 83.7% of the total installed capacity of 40,161 MW, and the
remaning capacity of 6,883 MW belongs to only the IPPs (2,782 MW) and autoproducers
(4,101 MW), which are considered in the independent electricity market (TEIAS, 2006).
Besides these models, the turnkey implementation of plant projects on a full-financing
basis through joint protocols is now the most efficient and succesful way of awardingand implementing large-scale energy plant projects in Turkey. For example, in addition
to the present BO and BOT power plants with a total installed capacity of 6,102 MW
and 2,449 MW, respectively, like other future projects, the one for the first nuclear power
plant of Turkey to be constructed in Sinop on the Black Sea coast, possibly, up to 2013
can be also carried out on a turnkey basis such as Bursa Natural Gas Thermal Plant andAfsin Elbistan-B Lignite Fired Power Plant with a nominal capacity of 1,432 MW and
1,440 MW, respectively, which are in operation (EUAS, 2006).
Energy Supply and Demand in Turkey
Due to the energy plans projected by the MENR, the mean yearly values of increasingdemands within the next ten years are in two categories—high, 8.4% and low, 6.3%
(MENR, 2006). In relation to the energy supply and demand in Turkey, the general data
is shown in Table 1. Following the high demand scenario, the current per capita energy
consumption is far below the world average and at least three times lower than the other
European countries’ consumption. On the other hand, the predictions indicate that, in2020, per capita consumption in Turkey (5,781 kWh) will just reach the level of the
present consumption of today’s developed countries (TEIAS, 2006).
Table 1
Energy supply and demand in Turkey
Year
Data 2000 2003 2005 2007 2010 2013 2015 2020
Population (106) 67.4 70.7 72.8 74.9 77.9 80.6 82.3 86.4
Primary energy supply (Mtoe) 81.3 84.0 92.4 106.3 126.3 151.0 169.5 282.2
(TWh) 134.3 166.4 199.6 241.7 278.3 352.2 407.2 543.9
Final energy demand (Mtoe) 60.5 79.0 74.2 83.5 99.4 118.0 131.1 224.0
Installed capacity (MW) 27,264 35,587 36,824 41,817 48,694 61,622 71,470 96,348
Electricity supply (TWh) 128.3 141.2 161.0 190.7 242.0 306.1 356.2 499.5
Per capita (kWh) 1,903 1,997 2,090 2,546 3,106 3,797 4,328 5,781
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For Sustainable Development 359
Turkey’s energy supply and demand by source are given Tables 2 and 3. As shown
in Table 4, Turkey has no big oil and gas reserves and is dependent on imported energy.
The main domestic energy sources are hydraulic, coal, geothermal, wind, biomass, and
solar, but tapped far below potential. The majority of Turkey’s coal production, which is
lignite at around 94% of total domestic coal, goes to lignite-fired power plants. It is also
expected that the country’s first nuclear power plant will begin to generate electricity in2013, but there are still numerous obstacles facing the plans for a power plant (DPT,
Table 2
Primary energy supply by source (%)
Year
Data 2000 2002 2005 2007 2010 2013
Coal 30.6 27.1 27.8 29.0 27.9 29.3
Hydro 3.3 3.7 3.9 4.3 3.9 4.1Natural gas 16.9 20.6 24.1 26.6 29.6 28.7
Nuclear 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8
Oil 39.7 39.3 37.0 33.2 32.8 30.9
Other 9.5 9.3 7.2 6.9 5.8 5.2
Table 3
Final energy demand by source (%)
Year
Energy resource 2000 2002 2003 2010 2020
Coal 21.8 19.9 20.9 20.5 36.0
Electricity 13.7 14.8 14.6 17.7 18.9
Natural gas 8.4 10.7 12.4 16.4 10.9
Oil 43.9 42.7 41.3 35.7 27.6Other 12.2 11.9 10.8 9.7 6.6
Table 4
Domestic primary energy supply by source (%)
Year
Energy resource 2000 2002 2005 2007 2010 2013 2015 2020
Coal 49.5 47.4 51.3 57.1 61.9 59.3 44.5 40.6Hydro 9.9 11.8 13.4 13.9 13.3 13.8 10.9 9.3
Natural gas 2.2 1.5 1.6 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.1
Nuclear 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.1 22.2 29.1
Oil 10.8 10.3 8.4 6.0 4.3 2.8 0.4 0.2
Other 27.6 29.0 25.3 22.1 19.9 17.5 21.6 20.7
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360 H. Salvarli
Table 5
Electricity supply by source (%)
Year
Energy resource 2000 2003 2005 2007 2010 2013 2015 2020
Coal 30.6 23.0 27.3 32.0 27.3 26.9 26.5 32.1
Hydro 24.7 25.1 26.1 28.1 23.7 23.6 23.1 22.0
Natural gas 37.0 45.2 41.3 37.8 44.1 41.9 37.7 33.4
Nuclear 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 8.9 6.3Oil 7.5 6.5 5.2 0.1 2.9 2.2 1.9 1.3
Other 0.2 0.2 0.1 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9
2006). Consumption of natural gas has increased substantially over the last several yearsdue to contractual obligations, which are peaking around 2009.
In order to meet increasing demands for the country and other European countries’
consumption, Turkey has established and already planned multiple international pipeline
connections, such as the pipelines of Baku-Tbilisi, Blue Stream, Iran-Turkey, and South
Caucasus. As will be known, Turkey’s location makes it an important energy transit coun-try between major oil and natural gas producing countries—such as Russia, Azerbaijan,
Iran, Iraq, Egypt, and Turkmenistan—and consumer European countries. This will also
help to ease increasing oil traffic through the narrow and twisting Bosporus,which is one
of the world’s busiest shipping lanes (BOTAS, 2006).
Electricity generation in Turkey is based on various energy resources (see Tables 5and 6). The conventional and renewable energy resources are not enough for quality
and quantity, and the electricity generation is highly dependent on imported fossil fuels.
However, a number of projects to use other renewable energy sources, like wind and
geothermal, are underway. The predictions indicate that the full capacity for the domestic
fossil and hydraulic resources will be obtained by 2020 (TEIAS, 2006; DSI, 2006). This
means that by 2020, the total energy generated by the domestic resources is to be 245TWh/year and the remaining energy demand of about 322 TWh/year will have to be
provided by imported resources. The largest energy and electricity consuming sectors in
Turkey are industrial process plants and dwellings (see Tables 7 and 8).
Table 6
Installed capacity of electricity supply by source (%)
Year
Energy resource 2000 2003 2005 2007 2010 2013 2015 2020
Coal 25.7 23.1 25.4 23.6 22.1 21.8 21.5 27.5Hydro 40.9 35.4 32.7 34.8 33.6 32.9 32.6 32.2
Natural gas 25.8 32.3 34.0 30.9 33.8 33.1 31.6 29.0
Nuclear 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 6.3 4.7
Oil 7.3 8.9 7.8 7.5 6.8 5.4 4.6 3.4
Other 0.3 0.3 0.1 3.2 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.2
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Table 7
Final energy demand by sector (%)
Year
Sector 2000 2003 2005 2007 2010 2013 2015 2020
Agriculture 5.0 4.9 4.7 4.6 4.4 4.3 4.0 4.0
Industry 39.0 36.2 43.8 43.7 43.8 44.1 43.0 46.0
Other 3.0 3.5 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.0 2.0
Residential and services 33.0 33.8 29.2 29.1 29.3 29.2 30.0 28.0Transport 20.0 21.6 19.3 19.8 20.0 20.1 21.0 20.0
Energy and Sustainable Development
Turkey has aimed at increasing domestic production by public, private, and foreign
utilities, and increasing efficiency by rehabilitation of existing plants and accelerationof existing construction programs.
At present, the average hydroelectric capacity in Turkey is 45 TWh/year, which
corresponds to only 36% of the total economically feasible potential of the country. Up
to 2020, it is expected that about 502 new hydro plants will be constructed to make use
of the full available potential, and that the total hydro installed capacity will be almost37,000 MW (DSI, 2006). Thus, within this framework it is also expected that the GAP
(Southeastern Anatolian Project) will be comprised of 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric
plants, and a total generation of about 27 TWh/year and the irrigation of an area of
1,785,050 ha will be realized. The GAP is an integrated, multi-sectorial development
project and covers many sectors such as agriculture, industry, transportation, water sports,etc. Dams are necessary not only for irrigation and hydropower, but also for the domestic
water supply in large cities. However, dams also result in flooding which can be good
or bad, depending on local conditions. It is expected that emissions are considerably
lower than those of gas and coal stations. The amount of methane and carbon dioxide
produced depends on the vegetation that decomposes after impoundment. The hydraulic
projects often improve environmental conditions, providing wetlands and various newdevelopments in the vicinity of the reservoir.
Table 8
Final electricity demand by sector (%)
Year
Sector 2000 2003 2005 2007 2010 2013 2015 2020
Agriculture 3.1 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.5 2.1 2.0 1.7
Industry 49.7 49.0 49.6 49.3 50.0 50.3 50.5 52.4
Residential and services 46.5 47.0 46.5 47.0 46.7 46.8 46.7 44.9
Transport 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0
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362 H. Salvarli
Besides the emissions of carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels, the combustion
of coal may also release toxic metals and radioactive substances. These wastes can cause
environmental and health damage, whereas hydraulic energy is both environmentally safe
and economically sustainable when compared to other sources of energy. It is, however, a
known fact that the contribution of hydraulic resources to the world electricity distribution
is only 6% and nearly two-thirds of the electricity produced is based on fossil fuels. Thisamount for Turkey was about 27% in 2005 (IEA, 2005).
As will be recognized, if the present rate of using coal, oil, and gas is continued,
the global temperature will have increased by 1.4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius in the next 95
years (IPCC, 2001; Hawksworth, 2006). Emissions of carbon dioxide from burning fossil
fuels are about 20,000 million tons a year worldwide,of which around 45% comes fromcoal and 40% from oil. For example, a 1,000 MWe coal-fired power station produces
about 7 million tons of carbon dioxide each year, plus perhaps 200,000 tons of sulphur
dioxide which remains a major source of atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide emissions
per unit power at the point of use are twice as high for coal as compared to gas, but
hydro, nuclear power, and most renewables do not directly contribute any. Fossil fuels,
particularly coal and gas, will remain important.The energy systems in both developing and developed countries can have significant
environmental impact. Therefore, a sustainable global energy system must optimize
efficiency and limit emissions. As concluded by the World Energy Council, sustainable
energy systems are achievable if vigorous action is taken in several areas such as energy
diversity and efficiency, cost reflective prices, market-sensitive interventions, supply re-liability, regional integration of energy systems, market-based climate change responses,
technological innovation and development, and public trust (WEC, 2005).
Renewable energy can be used to displace fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil, or coal.
These sources are both environmentally safe and economically sustainable. Renewables
offer the potential for carbon free energy. It is, however, a known fact that at the presentmoment, the contrubition of renewable energy to the world primary energy is only 14%,
and this amount for Turkey is about 11%. Although the total share of renewables is not
high to meet the primary energy and electricity supplies as shown in Tables 2 and 5,
respectively, it will help to obtain national savings and reduce environmental problems
related to the usage of fossil fuels. Renewable Energy Law of Turkey, which has been
passed by the Turkish Parliament on May 10, 2005, allows the produced electricity tobe supplied to the grid but still more legitimate arrangements in producing energy from
renewables (biomass, geothermal, wind, and solar) are necessary. The share of these
renewables is, at present, about 22% of Turkey’s domestic primary energy supply and
it is expected that the energy produced by wind, geothermal, and solar sources will
be increased as the share of biomass (wood, animal, and plant waste) energy slightlydecreases.
In Turkey, the energy produced with renewables (except hydro) is mostly used
for heating and cooking. Within this framework, the economic electricity production
potential of wind and geothermal sources is estimated at around 20,000 MW and 4,500
MW, respectively. In addition, the economic geothermal heating potential is 31,500 MWtwhich can meet 30% of all heating needs, but currently only 0.5% of potential is used.
The present installed capacity of wind energy is 58.1 MW and it is only 23 MW for
geothermal energy. The economic heating and electricity potential of solar energy has
an estimated 116,000 MW, and the energy produced with solar energy is, at present,
only used for heating, which is already less than 1% of the national energy production.
As the power generation by solar energy is not envisioned in the current development
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plan, the authorities do not view it as cost effective. There is, however, a great deal on
solar thermal and PV installed power. Obviously, more research into renewable energy
is needed (MENR, 2006; EUAS, 2006).
Conclusions
There is an increasing trend in the consumption of non-renewable energy resourcessupporting the economic, social, and population growth in the world. At present, the
importance of fossil fuels is still very high and they play a major role in air pollution.
The contribution of fossil fuels to the world electricity is about 71%. This percentage for
Turkey is approximately 70%.
New and renewable energies will become one of the main energy sources in the
near future because the fossil fuels will inevitably run out. Renewables are important notonly in generating jobs and developing future industries but also in meeting Turkey’s
energy and environmental targets. The government has already made a commitment to
renewable energy and intends to achieve the full capacity of Turkey’s energy supply from
renewables. However, the renewable technologies, such as wind, geothermal, and solar
are, at present, very small-scale.It is estimated that renewables (biomass, hydro, and other renewables) will be meeting
approximately 14% of the world’s total primary energy demand by 2030. This assumes
that the share of biomass will fall from 11% in 2006 to 10% in 2030 and hydropower
will remain stable at around 2% of total energy consumption (WEO, 2004). It is also
expected that the renewables, such as wind, geothermal, and solar, have the potential tomake major contributions to Turkey’s energy needs in the longer term if their investments
in these technologies continue. Some technologies, including biofuels and fuel cells, can
also contribute to heat, transport, and electricity markets in the longer term, and also
relevant for Turkey.
Turkey currently has the lowest energy-related carbon dioxide emissions per capita
among the IEA countries but its emissions are increasing at a fast rate (UNFCCC, 2006).The current emphasis on sustainability and carbon dioxide emission reductions has also
led Turkey to institute policies and programs to assist renewables to become competitive
on a widespread basis and to promote their deployment. The contribution of hydropower
to the electricity distribution is, at present, about 27% and is expected to be at 22% in
2020.To obtain a sustainable and steady development, the technology and the global
economy must develop in harmony with the environment. It is also clear that global
environmental problems are direct consequences of the increasing consumption of energy,
especially from fossil fuels having high sulphur and carbon contents.
Turkey’s policy has been to stimulate the use of new and renewable sources of energy
where they have had prospects of being economically competitive and environmentallyacceptable. Promoting independent power production under BOT and BO models, special
attention in the Government’s energy policy is paid to the development of international
co-operation.
Coal is the most important resource in electricity generation on world basis. Total
coal reserves of Turkey form only 0.7% of the world total. By 2020, about 36% of finalenergy demand and 25% of electricity supply will be met by the utilization of various
coals. World coal usage is set to increase by 27% over 20 years, with most of this increase
being in China and India. Since 1992, emissions of CO2 have increased by 3% in OECD
countries with coal accounting for approximately 40% of the total. In Turkey, especially
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after the petroleum crises in the 1970s, the coal production for thermal power plants is
closely related to the general energy demand. Unfortunately, the Turkish lignites have
low calorific value, high-mineral matter, high-moisture and sulphur contents. Two major
problems of using coals as an energy resource are: (i) the cost of conveying, and (ii) the
emissions from coal-fired power plant.
To meet high growth in demand of Turkey in a reliable way, all the projects (includingnew and renewable projects) should be completed within the anticipated time. This is
expected for most power plants as BO, BOT, turnkey, or cogeneration projects within the
private sector. It is now clear that an expenditure of about US$8.6 billion per year should
be required for the energy systems (DPT, 2006). Turkey has developed and implemented
several energy efficient projects, aimed at industry, transport, and residential sectors. It isalso expected that the market reform, including price reform, will lead to more efficient
consumption. As a result, to ensure steady development in an environmentally-friendly
way, additional efforts are required and policy makers will need to be selective about
sustainable development targets. In the longer term, new technologies will also find more
clever ways of reducing environmental costs and integrated power plants, and renewable
energy systems will be the examples to operate both reliably and economically withoutwaste-disposal problems.
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