CHAPTER 27
PhytochemicalFortification of Flourand Bread
Mehmet Hayta1, Gamze Ozu�gur21 Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri,Turkey2Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hitit University, Corum, TurkeyFl
C
CHAPTER OUTLINE
293
List of Abbreviations 293Introduction 294Functional Bread 294Phytochemical Fortification ofBread 294
Herbs and spices 294
Omega-3 fatty acids 295
Commercial Examples 296Phenolics 296
our and Breads and their Fortification in Health and Disease Prevention. DOI: 10.101
opyright � 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Lignans 298
Phytosterols 298
Fructooligosaccharides 298
Dietary fibers 299
Inulin 299
Germinated grains 299
Summary Points 299References 299
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSALA a-Linolenic acid
DHA Docosahexaenoic acidEPA Eicosapentaenoic acid
GSE Grape seed extract
GTE Green tea extractLC Long chain
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
MDF Mango dietary fiberMTO Microencapsulated tuna oil
PGBR Pregerminated brown rice
PUFA Polyunsaturated fatty acidsTC Total cholesterol
TG Triglyceride
6/B978-0-12-380886-8.10027-3
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SECTION 2Fortification of Flour and Breads and their Metabolic Effects
INTRODUCTIONBread is the major product among baked foods and consumed worldwide in relatively large
amounts. The demand for value-added cereal products has been growing steadily asconsumers realize that food with health benefits is better than a supplement. Among
different food systems, baked products provide an excellent opportunity to incorporate
bioactive compounds. With appropriate formula and/or process optimization, breads withacceptable quality can be produced with the addition of phytochemical-based ingredients.
This chapter reviews the use of health-beneficial phytochemicals in the bread making
process.
FUNCTIONAL BREADIn many countries, bread is a staple food product, and depending on the regional tradi-
tions, bread products and their production techniques vary widely. The basic ingredientsare flour, water, yeast or other leavening agent, and salt (Sluimer, 2005). During bread
making, the availability and levels of bioactive compounds in cereal grains can either
decrease or increase. The interactions of ingredients are also important and affect thenutritional value of bread. Various ingredients can be used to improve processing ability of
dough and the quality and nutritional value of the final product. Breads formulated with
functional ingredients are becoming more important in the bakery industry, and functionalbreads are already available (Menrad, 2003). In August 2000, the Fazer Company in
Finland made a request for plant sterol-enriched bakery products. The European Union
Scientific Committee on Food confirmed with regard to the application of Fazer that theaddition of phytosterols to a wide range of bakery products was safe. In January 2006, the
request was granted for “rye bread �50% whole grain rye flour, <30% wheat flour, <4%
added sugar to rye bread, and no added fat in the rye bread.” Intake of plant sterols shouldnot exceed 3 g per day. Later, the rye product was introduced into the marketplace
(Anonymous, 2006).
In The Netherlands, independent experts appointed by The Netherlands Nutrition Centre
approved claims for specific brands of bread with added OatWell oat bran, with Frutafit inulin,
and with n-3 fatty acids (same as fish). The formulations for the first two claims are as follows(Schmitz and Marquart, 2009):
Product: Pro-FIT bread, containing 2.2 g b-glucan from OatWell oat bran per 100 g bread.Health benefit: Daily consumption of 140 g of Pro-FIT bread (four slices, providing 3 g
b-glucan from oat bran per day) has been shown to reduce the serum concentration of
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) by 3% within 3 weeks in persons with elevated cholesterollevels.
Product: Vitaalbrood flora bread, containing at least 5 g Frutafit inulin per 100 g.
Health benefit: Consumption of three slices of Vitaalbrood flora per day supports a well-balanced gut flora composition and colonic function by selectively stimulating the growth
of Bifidobacterium.
These health benefits have been approved by the European Food Safety Authority (2006).
PHYTOCHEMICAL FORTIFICATION OF BREADHerbs and spices
Bread samples flavored with garlic in proportion of 0.5, 1, and 1.5% and with sweet basil inproportion of 5, 10, and 15% have been prepared and analyzed for antioxidant activity. The
antioxidant capacity was 0.053e0.197 mM Fe2þ/100 g for bread flavored with garlic and
0.059e0.368mMFe2þ/100 g for bread flavoredwith basil, whereas the antioxidant capacity was0.036 mM Fe2þ/100 g for the control sample. The polyphenol content was 0.179e0.221 mM
TABLE 27.1 Selected Properties of the Breads Used for an Intervention Studya
Control Bread Prebiotic-Only BreadPrebiotic andAntioxidative Bread
Composition (%)Apple fiber 2.0 2.0 2.0Sourdough 3.0 3.0 3.0Malt flour 0.8 0.8 0.8Sunflower seeds 10.0 10.0 10.0Wheat flour 66.9 50.9 48.1Rye bran 15.0 15.0 15.0Salt 2.3 2.3 2.3Soya d 6.0 6.0Inulin d 4.0 4.0Linseed d 4.0 4.0Wheat gluten d 2.0 4.0Green tea d d 0.5Spices d d 0.7Tomato d d 0.5
Wheat (Se rich) d d 1.0Antioxidant activity ((mmol l�1)/100 g)TEAC (hydrophile) 0.441 � 0.015 0.758 � 0.002 1.274 � 0.033TEAC (lipophile) 0.036 � 0.002 0.068 � 0.026 2.185 � 0.041
TEAC, Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity.
Source:Glei, M., Habermann, N., Osswald, K., Seidel, C., Persın, C., Jahreis, G., and Pool-Zobel, B. L. (2005). Assessment of DNA damage and its modulation by
dietary and genetic factors in smokers using the Comet assay: A biomarker model. Biomarkers 10, 203e217. Reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Group
(http://www.informaworld.com).aThe control bread consists of the basic mixture with wheat flour, coarsely ground rye grain, malt flour, sour dough, apple fiber, salt, and wheat gluten. Prebiotic
bread contains inulin, linseed, and soy flours, and the antioxidant bread contains selenium-rich wheat, tomato extract, green tea, and spice extract.
CHAPTER 27Phytochemical Fortification of Flour and Bread
295
gallic acid/100 g for bread flavored with garlic and 0.194e0.278 mM gallic acid/100 g for breadflavored with basil. The polyphenol content for the standard sample was 0.177 mM gallic acid/100 g (Raba et al., 2007).
In a study investigating DNA damage and its modulation by dietary and genetic factors insmokers, control bread consisted of the basic mixture with wheat flour, coarsely ground rye
grain, malt flour, sourdough, apple fiber, salt, and wheat gluten (Table 27.1). Prebiotic breads
were supplemented with inulin, linseed, and soy flours, whereas the antioxidant bread wasadditionally supplemented with the antioxidative ingredients selenium-rich wheat, tomato
extract, as well as green tea and spice extract (Glei et al., 2005).
Omega-3 fatty acids
Yazawa et al. (2001) studied docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-supplemented breads, one of whichcontained 1 g DHA and 0.3 g of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (Table 27.2). Serum total
cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) were significantly decreased 4 weeks following
consumption (TC before and after ingestion, 232 and 222 mg/dl, respectively; TG before andafter ingestion, 204 and 147mg/dl, respectively) with a concurrent increase in serumDHA and
EPA, suggesting that DHA-supplemented bread can be consumed every day and is clinically
effective for lipid reduction.
The effects of low doses of LC n-3 PUFA (<100 mg/day) on plasma LC n-3 PUFA levels using
a novel delivery form, bread containing microencapsulated tuna oil (MTO), were investigated.MTO bread contained approximately 80 mg of LC n-3 PUFA/four slices. Plasma triacylglycerol
fatty acid compositions were measured after an overnight fast and postprandially at 2 and 4 h.
This study showed that a low dose of LC n-3 PUFA, consumed as MTO-enriched bread, wasbioavailable, as measured by an increase in LC n-3 PUFA levels in the plasma of human
subjects (Yep et al., 2002).
TABLE 27.2 Effect of Ingestion of DHA-Supplemented Bread for 4 Weeks on the SerumTotal Cholesterol, Tryglyceride, HDL-C, and LDL-C of Volunteers withHyperlipidemiaa
Lipid Class Before (mg/dl)b After (mg/dl)b
Total cholesterol 232.4 (28.6) 221.9 (29.9)**Triglyceride 203.8 (119.6) 146.7 (75.7)*HDL-C 51.2 (17.3) 53.3 (18.0)LDL-C 142.2 (33.1) 136.2 (26.2)
DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.
Source: Reprinted with permission from Yazawa, K., Terano, T., and Matsui, T. (2001). Serum lipid lowering effect of DHA
supplemented bread. J. Oleo Sci. 50, 673e675.aBread contains 1 g DHA and 0.3 g of eicosapentaenoic acid.bMean (SD), n ¼ 19.*p < 0.05.**p < 0.01.
SECTION 2Fortification of Flour and Breads and their Metabolic Effects
296
In subjects with hyperlipidemia, intake of bread containing a small amount of fish oil (1.3 g)
resulted in a significant increase in n-3 fatty acids, an increase in high-density lipoproteincholesterol, and a decrease in triglycerides, which may reduce the risk of ischemic heart disease
(Liu et al., 2001).
COMMERCIAL EXAMPLESOmega-3 bread, which is formulated to improve heart health, was launched in the United
States by George Weston Bakeries. Grains & More Double Omega bread claimed to contain
25 mg of n-3 EPA/DHA per slice. Other examples include Cali-Wraps, which are n-3-enriched tortilla wraps, and whole grain flax bread in Canada. In Australia, Up Omega-3
bread, under George Weston’s TipTop brand, contains encapsulated fish oil. Weston’s Arnold
brand (Horsham, PA) formulates its Smart & Healthy Omega-3 DHA/EPA bread with fishoil. Bread containing a concentrated hydroxytyrosol, Hytolive 2, is made by Spanish
company Genosa R&D. The ingredient has been added to Puratos’ Nostrum brand bread,
which is made with a mixture of heart-healthy cereals such as oat, wheat, and barley. Thefirm claims that hydroxytyrosol is a valuable antioxidant extracted from olives that can help
prevent aging. Kroger’s Active Lifestyle Honey Oat and Whole Grain bread and 100% Whole
Wheat Bread contain Cargill’s CoroWise Naturally Sourced Cholesterol Reducer brand ofplant sterols.
Phenolics
Phenolic glucosidesdsecoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside, and ferulic
acid glucosidedhave been analyzed in commercial breads containing flaxseed (Table 27.3).The total phenolic glucoside content ranges from 15 to 157mg/100 g dry bread (Strandas et al.,
2008).
Common buckwheat has been used to substitute 15% of wheat flour to make buckwheat-enhanced wheat breads. Buckwheat-enhanced wheat bread has good antioxidant activity,
reducing power, and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging ability, with unhusked
buckwheat-enhanced wheat bread being the most effective. Overall, buckwheat-enhancedwheat bread has been suggested as a food with more effective antioxidant properties than
unenhanced ones (Lin et al., 2009).
A green tea extract (GTE) has been incorporated (50, 100, and 150 mg/100 g of flour) into
bread as a source of tea catechins (Table 27.4). One piece of bread (53 g) containing 150mg of
GTE/100 g of flour provides 28 mg of tea catechins, which is 35% of those infused from onegreen tea bag (2 g) (Wang and Zhou, 2004).
TABLE 27.3 Flaxseed Content (mg/100 g Dry Bread) and the Relative Composition (%) of the PhenolicGlucosides SDG, p-Coumaric Acid Glucoside, and Ferulic Acid Glucoside in Breadsa
Phenolic Glucoside Content
BreadFlaxseed content(g/100 g Fresh Weight)b
p-CoumaricAcid Glucoside
Ferulic AcidGlucoside
SDG SoftBreadc Total
1 6.5 33 (21%) 18 (12%) 105 (67%) 1572 n.g.d 21 (18%) 13 (11%) 81 (70%) 1143 9 27 (23%) 15 (13%) 74 (64%) 1164 3 21 (22%) 17 (18%) 56 (60%) 935 3.9 11 (16%) 12 (18%) 44 (65%) 676 n.g. 12 (21%) 8.3 (15%) 35 (64%) 557 2.5 7.2 (16%) 3.7 (8%) 35 (76%) 468 3 11 (25%) 7.7 (18%) 24 (56%) 429 n.g. 4.7 (18%) 4.4 (16%) 17 (66%) 2710 2 3.9 (15%) 4.6 (18%) 17 (67%) 2611 1.5 3.5 (15%) 5.3 (22%) 15 (63%) 2412 n.g. 3.8 (26%) 3.3 (22%) 7.6 (52%) 15Crisp breade
13 2.5 8.2 (15%) 5.4 (10%) 42 (75%) 5514 2.2 8.2 (21%) 5.2 (14%) 25 (65%) 3815 3 4.1 (17%) 5.2 (22%) 15 (62%) 2416 5 9.4 (29%) 7.7 (25%) 14 (46%) 3117 4 3.3 (18%) 7.2 (39%) 7.9 (43%) 18
SDG, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside.
Source: Reprinted from Food Chem., 110, Strandas, C., Kamal-Eldin, A., Andersson, R., and Aman, P., Phenolic glucosides in bread containing flaxseed,
pp. 997e999, Copyright 2008, with permission from Elsevier.aPhenolic compounds have been analyzed in commercial breads containing flaxseed.bThe flaxseed content in the bread was obtained from the product label.cThe soft breads had dry weight content ranging from 57 to 69%.dFlaxseed content was not given (n.g.) on the product label.eThe crisp breads had dry weight content ranging from 90 to 94%.
TABLE 27.4 Relative Retention Rate of Green Tea Catechins and Caffeine in Breada
ComponentBread with 50 mg ofGTE/100 g of Flour (%)
Bread with 100 mg ofGTE/100 g of Flour (%)
Bread with 150 mg ofGTE/100 g of Flour (%)
(-)-EGCG 80.6 � 3.0 86.2 � 4.9 82.6 � 2.5(-)-ECG 93.3 � 2.9 90.9 � 4.1 90.1 � 4.4(-)-EGC 66.8 � 7.1 67.8 � 5.2 62.8 � 7.3(-)-EC 93.6 � 3.4 95.9 � 2.4 97.1 � 3.9(-)-GCG 83.2 � 5.4 84.8 � 4.2 85.9 � 4.0(-)-CG 94.3 � 2.8 94.9 � 3.1 99.6 � 4.3Caffeine 95.0 � 4.6 95.7 � 5.1 96.5 � 5.5Total catechins 83.7 � 3.8 85.8 � 4.2 83.7 � 3.2
(-)-CG, catechin gallate; (-)-EC, epicatechin; (-)-ECG, epicatechin gallate; (-)-EGC, epigallocatechin; (-)-EGCG, epigallocatechin gallate; (-)-GCG, gallocatechin
gallate; GTE, green tea extract.
Source: Reprinted with permission from Wang, R., and Zhou, W. (2004). Stability of tea catechins in the breadmaking process. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52,
8224e8229. Copyright 2004 American Chemical Society.aGreen tea extract was incorporated into bread as a source of tea catechins. Data are expressed as mean � standard deviation of 12 samples.
CHAPTER 27Phytochemical Fortification of Flour and Bread
297
The supplementation of bread with green coffee has been shown to improve the chemo-protective property of normal bread under in vitro cell culture conditions. Supplementation
also increases chlorogenic acid content and antioxidative capacity. The treatment of the cells
with supplemented bread increases resistance of colon and liver cells to H2O2, a source ofoxidative stress (Glei et al., 2006).
SECTION 2Fortification of Flour and Breads and their Metabolic Effects
298
Grape seed extract (GSE), a well-known nutraceutical product, is an abundant source ofcatechins and proanthocyanidins with a strong antioxidant and free radical scavenging
activity. Moreover, it shows other biological effects, such as inhibition of platelet aggregation
and anti-inflammation and anti-ulcer activity. The change in antioxidant activity of breadswith added GSE has been investigated. Bread with added GSE had stronger antioxidant
activity than bread without GSE, and increasing the level of GSE further enhanced theantioxidant capacity of the bread. However, thermal processing caused the antioxidant
activity of the GSE added to bread to decrease by approximately 30e40%. The findings
indicate that GSE-fortified bread is promising as a functional food with high antioxidantactivity (Peng et al., 2010).
Lemon flavonoid prepared from lemon peel contains 30% eriocitrin, a potent antioxidant
and a functional food material. Sixty-five percent of eriocitrin was retained in the bread, and78% of the antioxidative activity remained after baking bread with added lemon flavonoid.
Sensory tests showed that a desirable taste could be retained with the addition of up to
0.50% lemon flavonoid, but larger amounts gave the bread a bitter taste. Lemon flavonoidthus seems to be a useful food material for enhancing the functions of bread (Kanae et al.,
2008).
Lignans
Flaxseed has been identified as a potential functional food because of its high content of the
phytochemicals a-linolenic acid (ALA) and lignans. Lignan has been shown to have
a chemoprotective effect against cancer. Flaxseed can be used in baked goods because it hasa minimal loss of ALA. However, ALA is susceptible to oxidation and the development of off-
aromas and off-flavors in food. Conforti et al. (2009) determined the effectiveness of both
synthetic and natural antioxidants incorporated into yeast bread that contained 15% flaxseedas a partial replacement for bread flour.
Phytosterols
The relative effects of phytosterol ester-enriched low-fat foods such as bread on serum lipids,plasma phytosterols, and carotenoids have been investigated. Table 27.5 shows that plasma
sitosterol increased by 23% and campesterol by 52% with phytosterol-enriched bread, indi-
cating that such products still delivered and released phytosterols to the gut (Clifton et al.,2004).
Fructooligosaccharides
Mujoo and Ng (2003) studied bread baked from flour blended with immature wheat meal richin fructooligosaccharides and found that the overall quality of bread appeared to be accept-
able, and the added fructooligosaccharides were retained after baking.
TABLE 27.5 Plasma Lathosterol, Campesterol, and Sitosterol after Ingestion of ControlFoods and Sterol-Enriched Foodsa
Control (n [ 58) Bread (n [ 36) Milk (n [ 40)
Campesterol (mg/ml) 3.72a (1.61) 5.36b (2.22) 5.68b (2.19)Sitosterol (mg/ml) 3.54a (1.84) 4.66b (2.74) 4.51b (2.12)
Source: Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Clifton, P. M., Noakes, M., Sullivan, D., Erichsen, N., Ross, D.,
Annison, G., Fassoulakis, A., Cehun, M., and Netsel, P. (2004). Cholesterol-lowering effects of plant sterol esters differ in milk,
yoghurt, bread and cereal. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 58, 503e509, copyright 2004.aThe relative effects of phytosterol ester-enriched low-fat foods such as bread and milk on plasma phytosterols have been
investigated. Values (SD) with different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05) from each other.
CHAPTER 27Phytochemical Fortification of Flour and Bread
Dietary fibers
Contrary to whole bread, which is relatively high in fiber content (7 or 8%, dry matter basis),
white bread contains only 2 or 3% fiber on a dry matter basis. Fibers, particularly soluble onessuch as inulin and oligofructose, might help to prevent diseases such as intestinal infections,
colorectal cancer, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and type II diabetes. Therefore, to improve
the nutritional quality of white bread, new formulae enriched with fibers such as inulin shouldbe developed (Poinot et al., 2010).
Mango dietary fiber (MDF) concentrate showed low lipid and high starch contents and
balanced soluble DF/insoluble DF levels, which is important for the functionality of fiber inthe human diet. In vitro starch digestibility tests of MDF bakery products indicated a low
predicted glycemic index. MDF might be an alternative for use in the development of products
with balanced DF components and low glycemic response for people with special carbohy-drate/energy requirements (Vergara Valencia et al., 2007).
Inulin
Development of high-fiber white bread containing added inulin (approximately 3e5%) has
also been described, as well as bread containing inulin plus other functional ingredients (Ca(as calcium lactate) or linseeds þ Ca). Results showed it was possible to produce fiber-
enriched white bread with good sensory, nutritional, and physicochemical properties. Bread
containing inulin, Ca, and linseeds had a Ca content of 250 mg/100 g and contents ofdietary fiber and essential fatty acids of 2.5 and 3.9 g/100 g, respectively (Draganov et al.,
2004).
299
Germinated grains
Pregerminated brown rice (PGBR) contains phytic acid, which has excellent health benefits
such as an antioxidative effect, protecting against cardiovascular disease and preventingplatelet aggregation. However, it suppresses the absorption of metallic ions into the body.
PGBR with germ length of 0.5e1.0 mm is produced as a healthy food by immersing the brown
rice in water to provide PGBR bread with high functional properties (Morita et al., 2007).
A wheat bread fortified with germinated wheat seedlings (30%, w/w) was reported to posi-
tively affect glucose-regulating factors compared to a control wheat bread in healthy volunteers(Andersen et al., 2008).
SUMMARY POINTSl An increased consumer desire for a healthy lifestyle has resulted in demands from the
bakery industry for breads containing functional compounds.l There is an immediate requirement for the food industry to prepare healthy bakery
products to satisfy consumers’ needs. New plant-derived natural ingredients or processing
steps are needed to develop breads with similar qualities as those of white ones.l As the number of available phytochemicals increases, the incorporation of these functional
ingredients into bakery foods will become easier.
l Many phytochemicals exist for bakery applications, and producers have started formulatingbreads with soy isoflavones, b-glucans, conjugated linoleic acid, and n-3 fatty acids.
l Research is needed to evaluate the effects of the phytochemical ingredients on the
functional and nutritional properties of bread.
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