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Ethnographic Research* Definition and purpose of ethnographic
research Key concepts and terms Ethnographic data collection techniques
*This presentation is based on the following references:1. A power point presentation on educational research chapter 17 Ethnographic Research by Gay, Mills, and Airasian (online presentation and an on line quiz on chapter 17 http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_8/0,11083,2527081-,00.html 2. A lesson plan by G. David Garson for Spring 2008 in http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/pa765syl.htm 3. Johnson, D. M. (1992). Approaches to Research in Second Language Learning. New York: Longman.
Definition and Purpose Ethnographic research
Definition A qualitative approach that studies the
cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings
Purpose To describe, analyze, and interpret the
culture of a group over time to understand the group’s shared beliefs, behaviors, and language
Objectives 1.1 & 1.2
Definition and Purpose Ethnographic research
Culture is the set of shared attitudes, values, concepts, beliefs, and practices that can be attributed to the members of the group being studied
Three broad areas to help focus on tangible cultural behaviors
Cultural orientation – where the people are situated Cultural know-how – how a group goes about daily
activities Cultural beliefs – why a group does what it does
Objective 1.3
Note
Unlike experimental research that rely on tests and questionnaires, ethnographic researchers rely on themselves. They are the major instruments of data collection since they collect their data through fieldwork (watching/observing and
asking/interviewing).
PracticeWhich of the following would be included in a definition of ethnographic research?
A quantitative approach that studies cultural patterns of participants
A quantitative and qualitative approach that studies cultural diversity
A qualitative approach that studies the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants
A qualitative approach that examines a group's cultural diversity
PracticeA set of shared attitudes, concepts, beliefs, and practices that can be attributed to the members a group being studied is a definition of their
Norms Culture Mores values.
PracticeWhich of the following would you expect to see in an ethnographic study?
A description of the culture of the group over time An analysis of the culture of the group over time An interpretation of the culture of the group over time All of these
PracticeChristian fundamentalists are known to believe in a strict adherence to biblical teachings. This exemplifies which of the tangible cultural behaviors discussed by the authors?
Cultural orientation Cultural know-how Cultural beliefs Cultural taboos
Key Concepts and Terms
Macro-ethnography Micro-ethnography Emic perspective Etic perspective Symbols Cultural patterning Tacit knowledge A key informant
Key Concepts and Terms
Macro-ethnography is the study of broadly-defined cultural groupings, such as "the English" or "New Yorkers.“
Micro-ethnography is the study of narrowly-
defined cultural groupings, such as "local government GIS specialists" or "members of Congress."
Emic perspective is the ethnographic research approach to the way the members of the given culture perceive their world. The emic perspective is usually the main focus of ethnography.
Key Concepts and Terms
Etic perspective, is the ethnographic research approach to the way non-members (outsiders) perceive and interpret behaviors and phenomena associated with a given culture.
Symbols, always a focus of ethnographic research, are any material artifact of a culture, such as art, clothing, or even technology. The ethnographer strives to understand the cultural connotations associated with symbols. Technology, for instance, may be interpreted in terms of how it relates to an implied plan to bring about a different desired state for the culture.
Key Concepts and Terms
Cultural patterning is the observation of cultural patterns forming relationships involving two or more symbols. Ethnographic research is holistic, believing that symbols cannot be understood in isolation but instead are elements of a whole. One method of patterning is conceptual mapping, using the terms of members of the culture themselves to relate symbols across varied forms of behavior and in varied contexts. Another method is to focus on learning processes, in order to understand how a culture transmits what it perceives to be important across generations.
Key Concepts and Terms
Cultural patterning (continued):A third method is to focus on sanctioning processes, in order to understand which cultural elements are formally (ex., legally) prescribed or proscribed and which are informally prescribed or proscribed, and of these which are enforced through sanction and which are unenforced.
Key Concepts and Terms
Tacit knowledge is deeply-embedded cultural beliefs which are assumed in a culture's way of perceiving the world, so much so that such knowledge is rarely or never discussed explicitly by members of the culture, but rather must be inferred by the ethnographer.
Key Concepts and Terms A key informant is “an individual in
whom one invests a disproportionate amount of time because that individual appears to be particularly well informed, articulate, approachable, or available” (Wolcott,1988, p. 159 cited in Johnson (1992) chapter 6).
Ethnographic Techniques Three major techniques
Triangulation Participant observation Field notes
Objective 5.1
Ethnographic Techniques Triangulation
Collecting data using many sources rather than a single one
Multiple sources Interviews Observations Artifacts
Ethnographic Techniques Triangulation (continued)
Multiple informants Consistency across sources and
informants creates a stronger understanding of what is truly going on
Objectives 5.1 & 5.2
Ethnographic Techniques Participant observation
The researcher is immersed in the research setting in order to get close to those studied as a way of understanding what their experiences and activities mean to them
Ethnographic Techniques Participant observation (continued)
Two purposes To observe the activities, people, and physical
aspects of a situation To engage in activities that provide useful
information in a given situation Three varying degrees of participation
Active participant observer – active engagement Privileged active observer – engaged in a more
active, privileged manner such as teaching a lesson
Passive observer – little, if any, engagement
Objectives 5.3 & 5.4
Ethnographic Techniques Participant observation
(continued) Recommended social behaviors
Negotiating entrance into the setting requires the researcher to be able to clearly describe the purpose, plan, and constraints likely associated with the research
Reciprocity requires the researcher to move between formal and informal ways of interacting with participants
Objective 5.5
Ethnographic Techniques
Recommended social behaviors (continued)
The researcher must have a tolerance for ambiguity
The researcher must have personal determination coupled with a faith in oneself
Objective 5.5
Ethnographic Techniques
Field notes A record of the researcher’s understanding
of the lives, people, and events that are the focus of the research
The link between field notes and the research
What is observed is ultimately treated as data When writing field notes researchers should
give particular attention to the indigenous meanings and concerns of the people studied
Objective 5.6
Ethnographic Techniques
The link between field notes and the research (continued)
Field notes provide essential grounding for writing broader, more coherent accounts of others’ lives and concerns
Field notes detail the social and interactional processes that make up people’s everyday lives and activities
Objective 5.6
Ethnographic Techniques
Recommendations for observing and recording field notes Make mental notes and record them
as soon as possible after observing Jot down key information
Capture key words and phrases without a lot of explanation
Use a mnemonic device to help reconstruct the observed events
Objective 5.7
Ethnographic Techniques
Recommendations (continued) Don’t worry about grammar or other
rules Trace what you did during the day Avoid the temptation to recreate
dialogue Describe as completely and accurately
as you can all relevant aspects of the observation
Objective 5.7
Ethnographic Techniques
Recommendations (continued) Record your personal reactions (i.e.,
reflective field notes) Observe and record everything you
possibly can Observe and look for nothing in
particular Look for “bumps” or paradoxes
Objective 5.7
PracticeInterviewing administrators, teachers, and staff in a school is an example of which of the following ethnographic techniques?
Differentiation Triangulation Participant observation Tolerance
PracticeWhich level of participation describes a researcher who observes in a classroom and completes the Stallings Time-on-Task Snapshot, a checklist of student and teacher behavior?
active participant observer passive observer privileged active observer voluntary observer
PracticeIn utilizing participant observation as an ethnographic technique, the researcher needs to be aware of which of the following purposes of participant observation?
Observation of not only the people but the activities and physical aspects of a situation
Reciprocity of the research in any situation Tolerance of ambiguity A personal relationship with all stakeholders
PracticeReciprocity requires the researcher to move between formal and informal ways of reciprocating with participants. This is an example of
a recommended method of triangulation. levels of participation. social behaviors. degrees of participant observation.
PracticeIn her observations at the Charter School in a local parish, Ms. LeBlanc records her initial impressions, makes mental notes, and draws pictures of the classroom interactions. This process is known as
participant observation. recording field notes. ethnographic jargon. random observation and notes.
PracticeThe link between field notes and research is important because
what is observed is ultimately treated as data. field notes provide an essential grounding for
writing broader, more coherent accounts of others' life concerns.
field notes detail social and interaction processes that make up people's everyday lives.
all of these.
Practice Which of the following is NOT one of the
recommendations for observing and recording field notes?
Avoid the temptation to recreate dialogue Pay attention to spelling and grammar Record personal reflections Look for paradoxes