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Planning: Setting goals and deciding how best to achieve them
Controlling: Regulating activities to reach goals
Organizing: Allocating and arranging resources
Leading: Influencing others to work toward goals
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Work Agenda
Work Methods and Roles
Management Functions • � Planning • � Organizing • � Leading • � Controlling
Knowledge Base and Key Management Skills
Performance (goal achievement)
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competitive situation - 89:8FB>BFNOC?�9M@AC:9G8C external environment - G:<L:<< 98BFK<:>< strategy formulation - R9BJFP>B9G8C�@ABCA<D>> strategy implementation - 9@FO<@AGP<:><�@ABCA<D>> competitive advantage - 89:8FB<:A:9<�=B<>JFO<@AG9.�
=B<>JFO<@AG9�=<B<H�89:8FB<:ACJ> competition - 89:8FB<:;>? competitor - 89:8FB<:A product line - A9GCB:QS�B?H��C@@9BA>J<:A packaging - F=C89G8C innovation - :9G9GG<H<:><��:9GL<@AG9 strategic planning group - DBF==C�@ABCA<D>E<@89D9�=PC:>B9GC:>? compatibility - @9GJ<@A>J9@AT.�@9E<AC<J9@AT overall strategy - G@<9MOC?�@ABCA<D>? achievement - H9@A>K<:>< mission - UCHCEC to maintain - =9HH<BK>GCAT favorable - MPCD9=B>?A:QS aging product time - F@ACB<GL>S�C@@9BA>J<:A outdated packaging - F@ACB<GLC?�F=C89G8C slowness - J<HP>A<PT:9@AT approach - =9HV9H
a) competitive advantage
l) large-scale action plans for interacting with the environment in order to achieve long-term goals;
b) strategy formulation 2) a comprehensive statement of an organization's strategies, along with its mission and goals;
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d) strategy implementation
4) the process of identifying the mission and strategic goals, conducting competitive analysis, and developing specific strategies;
e) an organization's strategic plan
5) the process of carrying out strategic plans and maintaining control over how those plans are carried out;
f) strategic management
6) a significant edge over the competition in dealing with competitive forces.
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1) Managers are apt to run into difficulties if they don't have a reasonably extensive ... relevant to their particular managerial job.
a) conceptual skills
2) A ... is the ability to engage in a set of behaviors that are functionally related to one another and that lead to a desired performance level in a given area.
b) doing the right things
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3) … are skills that reflect both an understanding of and a proficiency in a specialized field.
c) skill
4) Managers with effective ... are particularly adept at communicating with others and motivating them to develop themselves and perform well in pursuit of organizational goals.
d) doing things right
5) …, coupled with technical skills, human skills, and a knowledge base, are important ingredients in organizational performance.
e) human skills
6) The given example illustrates that effectiveness is essentially … .
f) technical skills
7) The following example illustrates efficiency as … . g) knowledge base
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2) project managers b) managers beneath the top levels of the hierarchy who are directly responsible for the work of other managers below them;
3) first-line managers c) managers at the very top levels of the hierarchy who are ultimately responsible for the entire organization;
4) top managers d) managers who have responsibility for a specific, specialized area of the organization and supervise mainly individuals with expertise and training in that specialized area;
5) functional managers e) managers who have responsibility for a whole organization or a substantial subunit that includes most of the common specialized areas within it;
6) middle managers f) managers who have responsibility for coordinating efforts involving individuals in several different organizational units who are all working on a particular project.
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1. Operations management C) … is an efficiency concept that gauges the ratio of outputs relative to input into a productive process.
2. Productivity b) … are organizations that transform inputs into indentifiable, tangible goods, such as soft drinks, cars or videocassette recorders.
3. Total-factor productivity c) … is a productivity approach that considers the total output relative to specific input, such as labour.
4. Partial-factor productivity d) … is an approach, that considers all the inputs involved in producing outputs.
5. Manufacturing organizations e) … is the management of the productive processes that convert inputs into goods and services.
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1) The operations management function (OMF) would include …
a) productivity
2) The operations management function is the part of the organization that is involved in producing …
b) the primary goods and services
3) The operations management functions in the hotel business include …
c) labor
4) Whether an organization produces a service or a product, operations managers need to be acutely concerned about …
d) customers
5) Effectiveness relates to the extent to which performance reaches …
e) goods and services
6) Productivity can be a useful tool for managers because it helps them track progress toward the more efficient use of resources in producing …
f) organizational goals
7) A productivity approach considers the total output relative to a specific input, such as …
g) hotel managers
8) Products can be shipped to … h) plan managers
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1) Investigation revealed many interrelated … a) attracting and selecting
2) The staffing component of the process includes … and … individuals.
b) managers
3) Line managers ultimately are responsible for … c) effective utilization of HRM
4) One critical aspect of the process – … assesses the human resource needs.
d) human resource management
5) … encompasses a number of important activities. e) problems
6) … is another important factor in the HRM process.
f) human resource planning
7) … must respond to various issues that influence work-force perceptions of the organization.
g) compensating employees
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1) Human resource professionals a) … may be used to support strategy implementation.
2) Line managers b) … is an important ingredient in the success of such strategy – related activities as downsizing, mergers, and acquisition.
3) The competitive advantage stage
c) … are responsible for the effective utilisation of human resources within their units.
4) Human resources d) … can comprise a source of distinct competence that forms a basis for strategy formulation.
5) HRM activities e) … play a major role in designing the various elements in the HRM.
6) Human resource managment f) … is increasingly viewed as important for both strategy formulation and implementation in the HPM.
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1) Managers usually rely on several different types of power … .
a) referent power
2) The use of coercive power has a strong tendency … .
b) being effective with both handling people and solving problems
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1) Most aspects of organizations ultimately depend on …
a) resources are channeled
2) The planning function mainly provides the means for … so that plans can be realized.
b) human behaviour
3) The organizing and leading functions help ensure that … toward organizational objectives.
c) to regulate
4) As part of the control process, managers set up …
d) corporate evaluation teams
5) Control systems can be developed … any area that a manager considers important.
e) highlight
6) … check some operations of the procedure during their unannounced inspections of outlets.
f) control systems
7) Controls both … needed behaviors and discourage unwanted behaviors.
g) monitoring and making adjustments in performance
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a) quality of products or services
b) change and innovation
c) portable computers
d) profit margins
e) timeliness of deliveries
f) consumer-products business
g) scientific research
h) quantity produced
i) client satisfaction
j) resources expended
k) inflation
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communication - @G?UT.�9MO<:><.�@99MO<:>< managerial communication - F=BCGP<:E<@8C?�@G?UT.�CHJ>:>@ABCA>G:9<�9MO<:>< verbal communication - G<BMCPT:C?�@G?UT.�~�9MO<:><.�~ @99MO<:>< common meaning - 9MO<<�U:CE<:>< written communication - =>@TJ<::C?�@G?UT; I�9MO<:><.�I @99MO<:>< nonverbal communication - :<G<BMCPT:C?�@G?UT.�~�9MO<:><.�~ @99MO<:>< estimate - 9;<:8C kinesic behaviour - 8>:<A>E<@89<�=9G<H<:>< paralanguage - =CBCP>:DG>@A>E<@8>S�?UQ8 object language - =B<HJ<A:QS�?UQ8 implementation - GQ=9P:<:><��9@FO<@AGP<:>< transmission - =<B<HCEC��=<B<@QP8C deficiency - :<H9@ACA98.�:<VGCA8C shortcoming - :<H9@ACA98.�:<@9G<BL<:@AG9 to disseminate - BC@=B9@ABC:?AT to involve - G8PNECAT�G�@<M?.�G9GP<8CAT layout - =PC:.�89J=9:9G8C credential(s) - =9P:9J9E>? to refer - =9@QPCAT��9A9@PCAT, @@QPCAT@?
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1) Communication is ... a) ... the written or oral use of words to communicate.
2) Paralanguage refers to … . b) ... vocal aspect of communication that relate to how something is said rather that to what is said.
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3) Proxemics refers to … . c) … the influence of proximity and space on communication.
4) Kinesic behaviour refers to ... . d) ... the communicative use of material things, including clothing, cosmetics, furniture, and architecture.
5) Nonverbal communication is … . e) ... the communication by means of elements and behaviours that are not coded into words.
6) Verbal communicational is ... . f) ... the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of achieving common meanings.
7) Object language refers to … . g) ... body movements such as gestures, facial expressions, eye movements and posture.
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5 5 International Business Machines
Armonk, N.Y. Computers
6 8 Toyota Motor Toyota City (Japan) Motor vehicles
7 10 General Electric Fairfleild, Conn Electronics
8 6 Mobil New York Petroleum refining
9 7 British Petroleum London Petroleum refining
10 9 IRI Rome Metals
11 11 Daimler-Benz Stuttgart Motor vehicles
12 16 Hitachi Tokyo Electronics
13 21 Chrysler Highland Park, Mich Motor vehicles
14 18 Siemens Munich Electronics
15 17 Fiat Turin Motor vehicles
16 19
Matsushita Electric Industrial Osaka Electronics
17 15 Volkswagen Wolfsburg (W. Ger.) Motor vehicles 18 12 Texaco White Plains, N.Y. Petroleum refining
19 14 E.I. Du Pont de Nemours Wilmington, Del Chemicals
20 20 Unilever London / Rotterdam Food
21 24 Nissan Motor Tokyo Motor vehicles
22 22 Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken
Endhoven (Netherlands)
Electronics
23 27 Nestle Vevey (Switzeriands) Food
24 32 Samsung Seoul Electronics
25 25 Renault Paris Motor vehicles
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2) They are to organize controlling function in international management.
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3) He asked the audience to define the Human Research Management (HRM) more.
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4) To make the process of management more effective we must include analyzing the competitive situation.
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5) He explained the function of controlling for the second time for us to understand it better.
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6) Controlling is the first process to sequlate organization aclivities so that actual performance conforms to expected organizational standards and goals.
1) organizing a) a process through which managers formulate and implement strategies geared to optimizing strategic goal achievement, given available environmental and internal conditions;
2) strategic management b) skills related to the ability to visualize the organization as a whole, discern interrelationships among organizational parts, and understand how the organization fits into the wider context of the industry, community, and world;
3) controlling c) an efficiency concept that gauges the ratio of outputs relative to input into a productive process;
4) nonverbal communication d) the management function that focuses on allocating and arranging human and nonhuman resources so that plans can be carried out successfully;
5) ethnocentric orientation e) communication by means of elements and behaviors that are not coded into words;
6) productivity f) the process of regulating organizational activities so that actual performance conforms to expected organizational standards and goals;
7) conceptual skills g) an approach to international management whereby executives assume that practices which work in the headquarters or home country must necessarily work elsewhere.
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a) When we accept a job with an organization, we usually are aware that we will be receiving …related to our work from our immediate boss and others in the hierarchy.
b) … are not always easy to identify, since it may by difficult to determine from the outside howmuch control management maintains over the policies of affiliates or whether managementactually uses a global perspective.
c) Written communication also has several …, including the expense of preparation, the relativelyimpersonal nature of written communications, possible misunderstanding by the receiver, and thedelay of feedback regarding the effectiveness of the message.
e) Another reason for the importance of strategic management is that it provides a … so thatorganization members know where to expend their efforts.
f) Feedback from the control process might … the need to reorganize, provide more training toworkers, clarify communications, increase leadership influence, or take other actions associ-ated with the respective organizing and leading functions.
g) Productivity can be a useful … for managers because it helps them track progress toward themore efficient use of resources in producing goods and services.
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d)�Line managers ultimately are responsible for the effective utilization of … within their units and, thus, carry out many aspects of the HRM process, particularly as they relate to implementing strategic plans.
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1. Ford at Dagenham
One of the plant managers, working with his area managers at Ford’s Dagenham plant, had deviseda plan for reducing costs by reorganising the work in the area of machine operation. The problem was thatif the plan was to work it required two important changes from the workforce – first their co-operation inmoving from the production of one set of parts to the production or another set half-way through eachweek. Second, it required the introduction of a new twilight shift. No extra money was on offer nor wereany other inducements held out. The ‘case’ had to be sold direct to the workforce (some 80 people) by therelevant area manager. This was to be attempted at a special meeting in the old canteen at the start of themorning shift.
At the appointed hour, the workers were assembled and seated in a rather cold and uncomfortablesetting, unconducive to extended debate. The shop stewards for the area were seated out at tile front. Thearea manager arrived ‘chauffeur-driven’ in one of the plant’s electric vehicles. Flanked by section heads hestrode to the front and commenced his delivery. The style was relaxed, down-to-earth, occasionally jovial,but very direct. In essence, ‘the problem’ was explained as uncompetitive costs in the production of twopower-train assemblies. The danger of at least one or these ceasing production altogether, unless the‘uneconomic’ low volume levels could be compensated for by more flexible switching each week betweenone job and another was explained.
The ‘solution’ was then described. This involved the introduction of a ‘swing shift’ and the necessity forthe shift, on certain days of the week, to be ready to finish the scheduled run in ‘Power Train I’ and relocatethemselves to a different area of the factory to commence work on ‘Power Train II’. Questions were then invitedand the area manager fielded these himself. One issue of concern was the extra time that would be neededreporting to work and in lost break time because of the distance between the two work locations. The areamanager dealt with this by promising to keep it under review during the first few weeks of the new work scheme.
After about 40 minutes the area manager and the rest of the management team departed and the shopstewards were left to address the meeting. The tone was essentially a realistic one of the economics ofcompetition and the poor state of ‘Power Train I’ because of its age and its low volumes. While some minorproblems were noted with the management plan, the overall message was that rearganisation was necessary.There was very little opposition from the floor. A vote was taken and the plan was accepted almost unanimously.
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2. Marketing the Theatre
In all branches of the theatre today, marketing expertise is crucial. When planning yourstrategy, the first step is to read the play which you are going to be marketing. When you know a show itis sometimes easy to find strong selling points.
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Table 1Average Ticket Prices and the Average Discount on Ticket Prices, 1991
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At the box office, the theatre business depends, to some extent, on the custom of tourists,particularly those from the United States. However, according to the Society of London Theatres,the relative importance of tourists has been declining. While 42% of the West End audience camefrom overseas in 1985, this had fallen to 32% by 1991.
Theatre managers do not like having to rely on tourists because it means that there will beregular seasonal troughs in demand when the number of foreign visitors falls off in the winter. Forthis reason, it has been quite common for up to half a dozen shows to be forced to close during thefirst few months of the year.
Moreover, there are inevitably going to be bad years for tourism, for example, during periodswhen the Dollar is weak, or when the threat of terrorism in Europe dominates the headlines (such asin the periods after Hie Libyan bombing in 1986 and the Gulf War in 1991) and serves to discouragepeople from travelling abroad.
Case Study Question 1: You are the business manager of your school or college play whichis to run for a week in the main hall. This means that you have the take of selling 1,000 tickets.What are the main marketing steps you must take?
Case Study Question 2: You decide to set your seat prices so that the production will ‘break-even’. What are the main fixed and variable costs that you should expect to incur.
Type of Production Average Ticket Price (£)
Average Discount on Ticket Price (%)
Modern Drama Comedy Modern Musicals Traditional Musicals Revue Opera Ballet Classical Plays Children’s Shows / Pantomime Thrillers & Others
12.59 13.08 18.28 17.26 15.11 30.20 21.05 11.82 10.79 13.28
10.1 8.5 1.5 9.8 0.7 8.5 3.8
17.5 4.3 5.5
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3. High Lane VI Form College
High Lane VI Form College acquired designated status on 1st April 1993. This meant thatcontrol for the funding of the college moved from the local authority to central government. Inaddition, the complete management of the budget would be carried out by the principal of thecollege rather than the local education authority. Finances for the college would be allocated by theFurther Education Funding Council and could depend, in the main, on the number of students itcould attract and on whether the college had achieved its mission statement. This is a document thatset out of college’s future goals and objectives in terms of curriculum development and deliveryand the pastoral programme for student guidance and support.
The principal and governors of the college decided to restructure in order to meet the challengeof the future. In the past the structure had four levels – the senior management team (the principaland two viceprincipals), senior tutors (responsible for the pastoral programme), heads of departmentsand main scale teachers. It was recognised that the senior management team needed to be expanded.Senior tutors were given extra responsibilities and made part of the senior management team. Inaddition a new team of curriculum leaders (CLs) was created. The team was made up from heads ofdepartments in the different curriculum areas, such as the social sciences and sciences etc. and wasresponsible for curriculum development and delivery. Much of the success of the college woulddepend on how well this group worked together.
The group certainly had a variety of personalities in it – from those with new, innovative ideas tothose that more concerned with administration and day to day problems. The group met formally once afortnight to discuss issues concerning a quality curriculum. It became apparent, however, that the meetingsrarely achieved concrete suggestions for future action. The meetings seemed to be used as “talking shops”for curriculum leaders to air grievances about the happenings of the week.
Some of the curriculum leaders were also part of an informal group of friends who would socialiseat lunchtimes and after college. It was often at these informal gatherings / meetings that the real issues wereraised and ideas discussed. Other curriculum leaders who were not at such gatherings would usually haveany important issues raised communicated to them through the ‘grapevine’.
The informal meetings became a focal point for CLs to attack the lack of focus in the officialmeetings and also the fact that their ideas were very rarely accepted by senior management. They feltthat senior management was made up of individuals who had caused a decline in the number ofstudents by their inaction over the last five years. Their main complaint, however, was that althoughthey had been assured by the principal that they would be the ones who would make decisions oncurriculum matters, the senior management team would often intervene and veto their proposals. Forexample, CLs suggested that gNVQs (general national vocational qualifications) should be more fullydeveloped in the college to attract students that had normally gone to the local FE colleges.
This idea was, rejected by the senior management team as not fitting into the academictradition of the college. Joan, the CL for Economics and Business, felt exasperated by this decision.She said: “CLs were meant to be part of the management of the college with responsibilities for curriculumdevelopment and delivery. We meet formally and informally, communicating in a variety of ways to eachother, trying to advance a common view on curriculum development. But at times we just don’t seem tohave the authority to make things happen. I just don’t know what we can do”.
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4. MORE THAN JUST A LEISURE PARK
The Dome Leisure Park is Europe’s largest multi-facility leisure development under one roof,with a total floor area of 15 100 square metres. Since its opening in October 1989, it has regularlywelcomed more than one million visitors through its doors per year, making it one of the UK’s top fiveleisure attractions, ranking it alongside Alton Towers and the Chessington World of Adventures.
The Dome is located in Doncaster, South Yorkshire. Its site gives quick and easy access tothe Ml, M18, and A1 (M) motorways, thus giving good communication links to surrounding townsand cities such as Sheffield, Leeds, and Nottingham. Alternatively, the nearby mainline railwaystation offers rail links to London, Birmingham, Manchester, and Edinburgh.
The land on which The Dome is built and surrounding areas comprise 350 acres of councilowned waste land on the Southern edge of the town, opposite the prestigious race course. TheDome can therefore be expanded without complication, or nearby land sold to other private sectorinvestors attracted to the area.
The Aims of the Dome
The Dome was a Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council (DMBC) initiative, first conceivedin 1985. It was designed, built, and opened at a cost of £25 million, which was wholly funded by thecouncil through the receipts of sales of land.
The main objectives of The Dome are:���OR�RUUJM�FPJ�MJZEXJDFZ�RU�_RDSHZFJM�H�XMHKHFESHVV^�XEUUJMJDF�VJEZbMJ�RTFERD�
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The Mission Statement of The Dome is:“To enhance the quality of life of residents and visitors to Doncaster and South Yorkshire by
means of a wide range of well publicised, affordable and enjoyable leisure opportunities in an attractive,healthy and safe environment”.
The Management of The Dome
The council knew that much depended on the success of The Dome, and as such, good managementwas imperative if they were to justify the initial cost the development demanded. They wanted the Dome tonot only be a successful leisure centre, but to provide the catalyst in attracting other developers andinvestors to the town. In short, successful management could turn the initial £25 million into investment,
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rather than expenditure. With this in mind, a private limited company, Dome Leisure Management, wasformed to oversee the commercial viability and day-to-day running of the project.
Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council (DMBC) recognised that it required the highest levels ofcommercial management and decided that a ’stand alone’ operation, whereby a Private Limited Companyruns the concern for the Council, provided the best opportunities for success. A similar strategy is illustratedby the success of the council-owned, privately-run, race course in the town.
The Marketing Strategy
When the Dome first opened the marketing of the Centre as a whole, and of specific events,was of prime importance. Without a high company profile and influx of customers, the Domewould fail to satisfy its aims and objectives. Due to this, the management enlisted the specialistskills of Colbear Dickson, an external marketing agency, to work with a group of managers includingthe General Manager and the Marketing Department. They would identify promotions and initiativesfor the coming months for the Marketing Plan.
Each year the Marketing Department has had a different goal to reach in promoting TheDome. In its first year it aimed at creating a corporate identity, in a bid to get the name of The Domeknown throughout the region, if not the country. In the second year, its task was to promote day-tripbusiness and the third year concentrated on promoting corporate business.
Market research is carried out periodically to ascertain the needs of the market. Access andVisa customers are sent mail shots with information regarding future events, but no system is set upas yet to monitor the success of this initiative.
The role of the Marketing Department focuses very much on the promotion of The Domeand public relations activities. In addition, several sales methods have been constructed as a resultof market research, such as offering joint tickets to both the water and ice facilities, as well as aKids Club aimed at the younger, energy-packed visitor.
Now that the Leisure Park has an established track record. The Dome Management rely to acertain extent on the name and The Dome’s reputation to do much of the marketing and selling forthem. A large amount of the Dome’s publicity comes in the form of press releases focusing onspecific events and new initiatives being launched, in the hope and expectation that local newspaperswill use the story, thus providing the public with information about the centre. This tactic enablesthe Dome to reach a large audience at little or no cost.
Local press and radio advertising tends to focus on specific high profile events, such asforthcoming concerts and basketball matches. Leaflets advertising the general facilities offered bythe Dome are displayed in tourist office’s throughout Yorkshire and Humberside.
The Business Operations of the Dome
Apart from being successful in attracting customers, the Dome also needed to be seen as having astrong corporate identity, in order to give the confidence of potential investors in the area. After all, it is toa large extent the Dome’s customers that feed all the other commercial developments on the site. To thisend, the Dome needed a resourceful management and competent staff.
Senior management posts were filled largely with personnel from outside the local communitywith experience of the leisure industry, whereas positions lower down the hierarchy were filledfrom the large pool of labour available locally. This enabled the Dome to find an acceptable balancebetween experienced, specialist staff brought into the area, and personnel from the local community.
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Any senior positions becoming available now are advertised internally in the first instance. Thisoffers several advantages to the company, in that it motivates staff as they believe that they have a chanceto succeed in the organisation. Also, the induction period (the first few weeks in the new job) is madesmoother as the employee is already familiar with the working environment, its people and its policies.Disadvantages of promotion from within are that no new blood is brought into the company which couldlead to a lack of innovative new ideas.
If internal advertising for management level positions fails to provide suitable candidates, theDome management prefer to ‘headhunt’ in order to save time and expenditure involved with advertisingexternally. The headhunting process involves contacting people known to the staff who are workingin, or have worked in, a similar position within the leisure industry. They can be attracted to the Domeby offering larger salaries, additional benefits, or better future prospects. Headhunting is particularlysuited to senior positions or ones where the post holder requires specialist skills or knowledge.
The Dome management place great importance on the induction, training and developmentof all staff. Every employee within the organisation receives an induction period upon taking upemployment. The amount of time taken in induction will depend on the position within theorganisation. An annual appraisal system is used thereafter to assess an individual’s overallperformance. This gives employees a formal opportunity to discuss with their managers their role within thecompany, where they think their job is going, and how it could be improved to the benefit of themselvesand the organisation as a whole.
A common training theme runs throughout all levels of the hierarchy. In 1992, for example,training concentrated on improving quality; whereas in 1993 training aimed at improving satestechniques. In addition to this themed training, job holders also receive a training programme tailoredto their needs. Most training is carried out in-house, giving the advantages of minimal time spentaway from the workplace and avoiding the expense of hiring an external training agency. TheDome is currently carrying out a Training Needs Analysis, which is partly funded by the Doncasterand Barnsley Training and Enterprise Council ‘TEC’.
Due to the dynamic nature of the leisure industry, the Dome management need to effectivelymanage change in order to maintain their competitive edge. most changes implemented tend to becustomer led. The ethos is that if customer demand is sufficient, the management will try and ensure that thefacility or activity is included.
It is not just current customers’ wishes that need to be met, however, in order to sustain thegrowth needed to meet the council’s expectations. If the Dome is to live up to all of its originalaims, it must evolve to become a Leisure Park large enough to pull visitors from further afield. Witha proposed Channel Tunnel Terminal being sited at Doncaster, it is now feasible to expect visitorsfrom France and the rest of the EU. Because of this the council is continually updating its proposedexpansions of the site. Current initiatives involve the development of an artificial lake for watersports, a business and office complex, a holiday village, and an all-seater sports stadium. If it is tocontinue to attract private sector development, it must continue to invest in, and expand on, thecurrent provisions offered.
Such a large scale development is obviously likely to upset some people in the localcommunity, due to problems such as increased traffic, noise, litter etc. Dealing with such groups isseen largely as a public relations exercise. If the Dome management and the council give them a fairhearing and lay down the basis of, and advantages of their proposals, or even bow to the wishes oflocal groups where this seems to be the best strategy, the council will maintain the much neededrespect and support of the local residential and business community.
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Private Sector Investment
For the Dome to provide maximum benefit for the local community, and Doncaster as awhole, it needed to attract private sector investors to the area. This was the best way for the DMBCto recoup their initial investment, as they sold off land to companies attracted to the area. Therevenue from land sales far outweighs profits obtained from the operations of the Dome. This hasalready paid off in the form of a 50 bedroom Campanile Hotel situated in two acres of land. TheFrench hotel chain has the scope to add another 50 bedroom annexe to their existing £1.2 milliondevelopment. Just prior to the official opening of The Dome, Keith Brown Properties Ltd opened a£1.5 million Ten Pin Bowling Alley covering one acre and providing 60 jobs. In 1990 an AsdaSuperstore opened covering 12 acres. Warner Brothers soon followed with a multi-screen cinemadevelopment situated on a six acre site at a cost of £6.5 million and providing 100 jobs.
The 500 full time jobs and 100 part time positions created by the £55 million worth ofprivate sector investment in the first phase of the Park’s development has given a boost to othercommercial concerns in the local economy. Unemployment has fallen, spending power has increased,and this spending has led to further employment in other businesses.
The council are hoping that further development of the park will transform this area ofDoncaster into a role model of private and public sector co-operation in economic revival.
Conclusion
The Doncaster Dome was never intended to be a means to an end. It was never intended tobe merely a leisure park. It was intended to trigger new hope and investment for the town. So far itseems to have worked.
The General Manager of the Dome was right when he said “The Dome is a household name on nilregional lips, is well known in the Leisure industry, is admired by its rivals and is the envy of other BoroughCouncils”. It is certainly that, and to the people of Doncaster, much more besides. It has provided hope inwhat was otherwise a seemingly bleak future for a town where traditional industries (e.g. mining andengineering) are in sharp decline.
Questions for discussion
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Managerial dilemmas. Handy argued that managers face dilemmas. One of the reasons whymanagers are paid more than workers is because of the dilemmas they face.
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Managerial roles
Henry Mintzberg suggested that, as well as carrying out certain functions, the manager alsofulfils certain roles in a firm. He identified three types of role which a manager must play.
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Leadership
The ability to lead within organisations is of growing interest to businesses. This interest hasresulted from the need to lead companies through change, brought about by an increase in competitionand a recessionary climate in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
Earlier in this unit it was shown that a manager might have a leadership role. To be a goodleader in business it has been suggested that a manager must know what direction needs to be taken by the
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business and plan how to achieve this. Leaders will also be able to persuade others that the decisions thatthey have taken are the correct ones.
Leaders are often thought to be charismatic people who have ‘something about them’ thatmakes them stand out from others. It has been argued that there are certain personality traits that arecommon to leaders. However, studies have failed to prove this is the case.
In order to identify ‘leadership’, studies have shifted to examine what leaders, and in particularmanagers, do – that is, what behaviour is associated with leadership. This is dealt with in the next sections.
The qualities of leadership
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Leadership styles
Another approach is to examine different styles of leadership. There is a number of styles thatmanagers might adopt in the work setting. Table 1 shows the different ways in which leaders can involveothers in the decision making process.
Autocratic. An AUTOCRATIC leadership style is one where the manner sets objectives, allocatestasks, and insists on obedience. Therefore the group become dependent on him or her. The result ofthis style is that members of the group are often dissatisfied with the leader. This results in littlecohesion, the need for high levels of supervision, and poor levels of motivation amongst employees.
Autocratic leadership may be needed in certain circumstances. For example, in the armedforces there may be a need to move troops quickly and for orders to be obeyed instantly.
Democratic. A DEMOCRATIC leadership style encourages participation in decision making.Managers may consult employees or could attempt to ‘sell’ final decisions to them. It is argued that,through participation and consultation, employees know and believe the objectives of management because
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Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire Type of leadership
Autocratic Persuasive Consultative Laissez-faire
Method
Leader makes decisions alone. Others are informed and carry out decisions.
Leader makes decisions alone. Others are persuaded by the leader that the decision is the right one, i.e. leader ‘sells’ the decision to the group.
Leader consults with others before decision is made. There will be group influence in the final decision, even though it is made by the leader.
There is no formal structure to decision making. The leader does not force his or her views on others.
they have had some involvement with it. This will result in employees being more motivated and willing towork harder.
Democratic leadership styles need good communication skills. The leaders must be able toexplain ideas clearly to employees and understand feedback they receive. It may mean, however, thatdecisions take a long time to be reached as lengthy consultation can take place.
Laissez-faire. A LAISSEZ-FAIRE type of leadership style allows employees to carry out activitiesfreely within broad limits. The result is a relaxed atmosphere, but one where there are few guidelines anddirections. This can sometimes result in pool productivity and lack of motivation as employees have littleincentive to work hard.
Table 1Leadership style
Factors affecting leadership styles
The type of leadership style adopted by managers will depend on various factors.The task. A certain task may be the result of an emergency, which might need immediate
response from a person in authority. The speed of decision needed and action taken may require anauthoritarian or autocratic style of leadership.
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Why do leaders adopt different styles?
A number of theories have been put forward to explain the most appropriate leadership stylewhen dealing with certain situations or groups at work.
Fiedler. In l976, F. Fiedler argued that it is easier to change someone’s role or power, or tomodify the job he has to do, than to change his leadership style. From his 800 studies he found thatit is difficult for people to change leadership styles – an ‘autocrat’ will always lead in autocraticstyle whereas a leader that encourages involvement will tend to be ‘democratic’. Different leadershipstyles may also be effective depending on the situation. He concluded that, as leaders are unable toadapt their style to a situation, effectiveness can only be achieved by changing the manager to ‘fit’the situation or by altering the situation to fit the manager.
In business it is often difficult to change the situation. Fiedler suggested that a businessshould attempt what he called leadership match – to choose a leader to lit the situation. Leaderscan be either task orientated or relationship orientated. So, for example, a business that faceddeclining sales might need a very task orientated manager to pull the business around, even if thetradition of the firm might be for a more democratic style of leadership.
Hersey and Blanchard. P. Hersey and K.H. Blanchard argued that a leader’s strategy shouldnot only lake account of the situation, but also the maturity of those who are led. They definedmaturity as the ability of people to set targets which can be achieved and yet are demanding.
A leader will have task behaviour or relationship behaviour. Task behaviour is the extentto which the leader has to organise what a subordinate should do. Relationship behaviour describeshow much support is needed and how close personal contact is. Together these will decide which ofthe following leadership styles will be used.
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Wright and Taylor. In 1984, P. Wright and D. Taylor argued that theories which concentrate onthe situation or maturity of those led ignore how skilfully leadership is needed.
They produced a checklist designed to help leaders improve the performance of subordinates.It included the following.
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This can be used to identify the most suitable leadership style in a particular situation. Forexample, if the problem above is caused because the employee has been left to make his owndecisions and is not able to, a more autocratic leadership style may be needed. One the other hand,if the employee lacks motivation or does not have the authority to make decisions, greater discussionor delegation may be needed.
Key terms
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Summary
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HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Managing people in business
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From individual to team member
The classic texts present employees as individuals working in a firm and devote attentionto individual human needs. You will be familiar with this approach in the work of Maslow, whodescribes a hierarchy of human needs and stresses the importance of satisfying the higher needs(see Figure 1).
Herzberg takes a similar approach (see Table 1), dividing the factors which can be identifiedin the work situation into those which must be there if people are to work at all (hygiene factors)and those which might be likely to provoke a positive response (motivating factors).
Table 1The Herzberg model
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Hygiene factors Motivators Working environment
Supervision
Company policy
Relationship with superiors
Relationship with subordinates
Achievement
Responsibility
Work itself
Advancement
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From negative to positive
Much of what is traditionally implied in personnel management approaches centres onnegative performance measures: the reduction in labour turnover, the avoidance of industrial disputes,the minimising of lateness and absence through such things as timeclocks and flexitime. Thephilosophy of HRM, in contrast, is that members of teams have a responsibility to each other whichis a more compelling motivator than a rather generalised responsibility to the firm.
Again I cannot resist comparison with the management of a class. Students working in sub-groups work much more for each other than for the class teacher. Evidence suggests that this leadsto more continuous and more positive contributions than a whole class or individual student ap-proach commonly produces.
The broader perspective of employment
If the philosophy of HEM is effectively practised, the view of employment as finding people whowill offer individual job skills diminishes. The focus of workforce planning, selection, induction and trainingis very much broader. Its consequence is both to require and to develop good communication skills and agreater sense of identity with the organisation. HRM implies a movement away from ‘us and them’ to-wards a cooperative concern for the same objective based on differing but equally valued contributions.
Some might argue that this is true ‘Taylorism’ in the sense that there is a common goal to beachieved which requires a solution-centred approach. It is not based on different sets of objectives whichhave to be harmonised in a way which is problem centred and designed to limit or prevent conflict.
Mary Parker Follett’s view that conflict is not only inevitable but is desirable takes on a newdimension within the framework of HRM because it is through the creative resolution of positiveconflict that high performance can be achieved. The approach does not deny the significance ofindividual human needs. Rather, it sets their satisfaction in a cooperative culture which is morelikely to give scope for satisfying higher needs than any approach based on the individual job.
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Why change now?
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The environment is an ever-changing one. This tends to produce uncertainty, fear andconflict when what is required is cooperation, flexibility and contribution. Working within a teamis more supportive, allows greater involvement in decision making and an increased opportunityfor making a contribution.
Such a dynamic environment also needs a stable workforce – one that can move with thechanges without changing too much itself, one that can live with a higher level of risk and greateruncertainty about the future.
Quality assurance
History has shown us that the old method of inspecting work and rejecting where necessaryis not very effective. It is better to involve workers in the process. Most will work better if theyknow what the quality objective is and by what criteria completed work is to be assessed. Motivationis futher enhanced if workers participate in making decisions about all aspects of these processes.
Quality is an agreed objective rather than an external standard, but the pressures of themarket place make it increasingly important that quality assurance targets are met. The contributionHRM can make to this process is to develop worker involvement in deciding the goals of theorganisation and therefore far greater commitment to their achievement.
From theory to practice?
How real are these changes? Can they be seen in the way organisations are run or is thislargely the human relations writers talking to each other?
Drucker predicts that new organisations which embody HRM will rapidly appear in the nexttwenty years with flatter organisation charts and much more responsibility centred around the workers.A large, number of individual studies, particularly of large organisations in the motor industry,provide further evidence of such changes, but it will no doubt be some considerable time beforethey are commonplace in the business and industrial parks of our town.
David Dyer is Head of the Economics, Geography and Business Education Department atthe University of London Institute. He is Director of the Cambridge Business Studies Project, ChiefExaminer for Cambridge Modular and Oxford & Cambridge Modular and Linear courses, andChairman of our Business Review editorial team.
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Prescribed work
Broadly speaking, any manager’s job can be divided into two parts – prescribed and discre-tionary. The prescribed part refers to the daily structured tasks someone needs to accomplish in orderto achieve the basics. The person has little choice but to do what is required (just as a GP’s prescrip-tion spells out what sort of drugs the patient needs, the quantity, and over what time period).
The job may need a low or a high level of skill. For example, routine work is likely toinvolve people completing a set number of tasks, often conducted in a particular way, on a dailybasis. Strangely enough, the work of a surgeon, although high level with respect to skills and status,is also ‘prescribed’. Surgeons specialise in particular aspects of surgery and have a set number ofunits of work to fulfil.
Apply this thinking to the role of sales manager. The manager is probably given a geographi-cal region to cover, and sells a part or whole of the company’s product range. There are likely to berevenue targets to achieve: a certain volume of sales within certain periods of time. And there mayequally be cost targets: you are only allowed to spend so much in order to achieve the target sales.
Sales managers may say their ambitious revenue targets are impossible with the limitednumber of sales people they have. They need more people. The answer is: ‘No. Sell more – but withthe people you have got!’ Hence the job of the sales manager is to a large extent prescribed.
Discretionary work
The second type of managerial work is known as discretionary. This means you have the choice ofwhat to do according to what you think is right. Sales managers who stop and think about their position dohave choice: ‘OK, the targets are tough. So do I motivate my people to work longer and harder? Or do Iget my assistants to manage my people, while I focus on those valued customers who may require personalattention?’. That is a common dilemma for a sales manager to consider. One crucial aspect of discretion isthat the manager in question decides. No one else can really say what is best.
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What if the relationships among the top team members are not well developed? What if people feeltoo inhibited and sensitive to talk to each other? What if people feel that to make critical comments aboutone’s boss or colleagues could lead to being sacked? What happens if top managers feel that to speak outis inappropriate?
Knowing the nature of the company’s problems is not sufficient. Senior managers may stillnot speak out. People can have all the necessary insights as to what is wrong and what to do aboutit, but still end up doing nothing. Bringing certain issues to the surface may be too uncomfortable.
Therefore the final aspect of using the discretion in one’s role effectively is maturity. Are thetop managers of the organisation sufficiently mature to talk about sensitive issues? Nobody is bornwith maturity – it is a quality that people can develop during their life if they so choose. In fact,many people seem to be unduly lacking in this personal quality. Maturity helps individuals copewith situations of ambiguity, disagreement and tension by enabling them to listen, discuss andcontribute with others. A piece of sound advice for any senior manager is to leave your ego at home.That way, others find it easier to talk to you.
The activities of top managers
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With the problems of Rover, this approach might not have worked. Yet in 1993 Rover wasthe only car company in Europe which increased its market share. The simple fact is that the strat-egy worked because Graham Day made it work!
Andrew Kakabadse is Professor of Management Development at the Cranfield School ofManagement. He recently completed a major world study of chief executives and top executive teams.
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���) 7: HOW LEADERS INFLUENCE OTHERS
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���) 8: CONTROL AS A MANAGEMENT PROCESS
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���) 9: THE NATURE OF MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION
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���) 10: THE NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT
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ENGLISH FOR STUDENTSOF MANAGEMENT
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Management: An Overview
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Managerial Knowledge, Skills and Performance
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Managerial Job Types
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Defining Operation Management
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Strategic Human Resource Management (HRM)
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How Leaders Influence Others
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Control as a Management Process
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