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THE RELATIONSHIP OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR IN NON-PROFIT EXECUTIVE
LEADERS
by
Cheryl L. Meredith
CLIFFORD BUTLER, PhD., Faculty Mentor and Chair
NANCY S. BOSTAIN, PhD., Committee Member
DAVID MULLIGAN, PsyD., Committee Member
Kurt Linberg, Ph.D., Dean, School of Business & Technology
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
December 2007
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UMI Number: 3290654
3290654
2008
UMI Microform
Copyright
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company300 North Zeeb Road
P.O. Box 1346
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by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
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i
Cheryl L. Meredith, 2007
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Abstract
What characterizes an effective leader? Are there qualities of effective leaders that could
be used in developmental processes for new emerging leaders? This study seeks to
address these questions by examining the relationship between emotional intelligence and
leadership styles among executives leading in non-profit, faith-based organizations based
in Colorado. A general questionnaire gathered demographic data related to the perceived
importance of basic quality of life and leadership qualities. The Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X) developed by Avolio and Bass examined the leaders
self-reported leadership style. Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire
leadership styles were compared with scores on the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory
Test (EQ-i). Statistical cluster analysis demonstrated a strong relationship between
transformational leadership behaviors and emotional intelligence. In addition, linear
regression analysis revealed that five components of emotional intelligence accounted for
over half of the variation in transformational leadership behavior. The five were:
optimism, self-actualization, empathy, problem solving, and assertiveness. All but
empathy scored higher than the general population. The study findings suggest that
developing these five areas in executive leaders could increase the likelihood of the use
of transformational leadership behaviors. Transformational leadership has been studied
extensively and been shown to positively affect organizations. Further study would be
needed to demonstrate the breadth of possible application, but it is worthy of
consideration that a focus on developing emotional intelligence could result in increased
transformational leadership behaviors, positively influencing an organization.
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Dedication
To my familyboth those of blood and spirit; you make me who I am.
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Acknowledgments
There are so many that I wish to thank. Coming to the place of submitting this
study has been a culmination of so many peoples love and support. You know who you
are. You know how deeply I value and appreciate your roles in my life. I am so much
richer for walking this journey with you. We are writing the story together, and wow, is it
beautiful to live lives interwoven with you!
A handful of people must be thanked by name. Alan, you made this opportunity
possible, I am forever grateful. Thanks for being someone committed to seeing those
around you grow and flourish. Bob, your help with design and statistics was invaluable.
Thanks for your patience, grace, and your gift of hope. Your encouragement helped me
believe the finish line would come. Judie, you helped make these words readable. Your
incredible commitment to detail and excellence is seen on every page. Bless you! And
last, those who were first; Mom and Dad, thank-you for being my preeminent and most
enduring taste of love, grace, and hope. You have given me the greatest gift possible in
your example of so generously laying down your lives so that others may live and
flourish. Your lives resonate into eternity. I am most blessed!
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements iv
List of Tables ix
List of Figures xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
Introduction to the Problem 1
Background of the Study 3
Statement of the Problem 6
Rationale 7
Research Questions 8
Significance of the Study 9
Definition of Terms 9
Assumptions and Limitations 12
Nature of the Study 13
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 14
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 15
Introduction 15
Origins of Emotional Intelligence 15
An Overview of the History of EI 16
Is EI A Distinctive Construct? 37
Critique of EI Models 39
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History of Transaction and Transformational Leadership 44
Leadership and Organizational Culture 49
Possible Future Considerations 63
Summary 64
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 65
Introduction to Methodology 65
Research Design 66
Assumptions and Limitations 76
Ethical Considerations 78
Conclusion 79
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 80
Introduction 80
Descriptive Statistics 81
Statistical Analysis 99
Qualitative Data 105
Comparison with Construction Executives 112
Summary 116
CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 117
Introduction 117
Study Overview 117
Findings 119
Comparison with Construction Executives 131
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Implications 135
Study Limitations 137
Recommendations for Further Study and Research 139
Conclusions 144
REFERENCES 145
APPENDICES 161
Appendix A: General Questionnaire 161
Appendix B: Sample List of Organizations 164
Appendix C: Study Website Screen Shots 165
Appendix D: Job Responsibility 170
Appendix E: Job Contribution 174
Appendix F: Greatest Challenge 179
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List of Tables
Table 1: Position by Gender 81
Table 2: Years in Position, with Organization, with Non-Profits 82
Table 3: Education 82
Table 4: Descriptive Statistics: EI and Components 84
Table 5: Descriptive Statistics: MLQ and Components 86
Table 6: Time for Presidents and CEOs in Organization and Position 87
Table 7: Education Level of Presidents and CEOs 87
Table 8: Average Age of Presidents and CEOs by Gender 88
Table 9: EQ-i Scores of Presidents and CEOs 89
Table 10: Comparison of Presidents/CEOs EQ-i scores with the Study Population 90
Table 11: MLQ Scores of Presidents and CEOs 92
Table 12: Education of Senior VPs and VPs 93
Table 13: Service Times of Senior VPs and VPs 93
Table 14: Average Age of Senior VPs and VPs by Gender 94
Table 15: EQ Descriptive Statistics for Senior VPs and VPs 95
Table 16: Comparison of EQ Scores of Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs 97
Table 17: MLQ Scores of Senior VPs and VPs: Descriptive Data 98
Table 18: Comparison of MLQ Scores by Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs 99
Table 19: Average EQ-i scores by Transformational Leadership Cluster 101
Table 20: EQ-i Versus Transformational Leadership 103
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Table 21: Correlation Coefficients 105
Table 22: Life Issues Responses 106
Table 23: Rescoring of life assessment issues, positive questions 106
Table 24: Rescoring of life assessment issues, negative questions 107
Table 25: Averages of life assessment issues 107
Table 26: Life Issues Responses (rescored) 108
Table 27: Life Issues by President/CEOs, Non-Presidents, and Total 109
Table 28: Total Life Issue Scores 110
Table 29: Comparison of Non-Profit Executives and Construction Executives on EI 113
Table 30: Comparison of Non-Profit Executives and Construction Executives !MLQ 114
Table 31: Comparison of Means of Non-profit and Construction Executives 115
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Models of Emotional Intelligence 20
Figure 2: Three Models of Emotional Intelligence 23
Figure 3: Personality and Its Major Subsystems 38
Figure 4: BarOns EQ-i Components 73
Figure 5: Cluster Analysis For Transformational Leadership 100
Figure 6: Scatter Diagram Transformational Leadership versus EQ-I 102
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem
Leadership qualities and what makes a good leader have taken center stage in
much of current business dialogue. Concurrently, emotional intelligence (EI) has caught
the popular imagination and has emerged as a skill set that enhances leadership.
Emotional intelligence at its essence is the ability to use and manage ones own emotions
and the ability to understand and use the emotions of others. Numerous claims have been
made concerning the impact of this kind of intelligence on a vast array of life areas.
Within the business context leadership behaviors are studied to discover what is
most effective. Transformational leadership behaviors, including those behaviors that
inspire and motivate followers, have been extensively studied. A characteristic of
transformational leaders is that they challenge followers to align their contribution to
their passions and to offer their highest potential to the organization. Transformational
leadership behaviors have been demonstrated to positively impact organizational success
more than transactional and laisse-faire leadership behaviors.
This study has considered if there is a relationship between EI and the leadership
styles used by non-profit executives. The selected population is executives in faith-based,
non-profit organizations. The results of this study can be used to help to better equip
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executive leaders for the future. A key issue is identifying future leaders for non-profit,
faith-based organizations, who can respond to the needs of a rapidly shifting culture. This
study has sought to meet this pressing need by asking a series of questions designed to
discover if there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and the use of a
transformational leadership style by non-profit executives. A description of an
emotionally intelligent executive leading in a faith-based non-profit context is proposed.
The findings are compared with the first in-depth, single industry research on the topic,
conducted on construction executives (Butler, 2005). The population of the construction
study provides a backdrop of comparison and possible contrast.
Some of the specific questions addressed in the study include:
1. What is the EI composition of non-profit executives?2. Is there a relationship between the emotional intelligence of non-profit
executives and their preferred leadership style?
3. Is there a difference between EQ-i score and choice of leadershipapproaches of non-profit executives with those of construction executives?
If there are specific EI qualities related to increased transformational leadership in
executives, then the literature suggests that the skills to become a better executive could
be developed. The specific EI theory I will use breaks EI into 15 components which,
when focused upon, can increase emotional intelligence. Further, if there is a relationship
between EI and with the executives use of more effective leadership behaviors, then
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developing these EI qualities should increase overall leadership effectiveness. These
finding could also be used in the creation of leader development processes for the future.
Background of the Study
Emotional intelligence burst into the public consciousness with Golemans (1995)
bestselling bookEmotional Intelligence,and the provocative question, why it can matter
more than IQ? His book began an avalanche of interest in the influence of emotional
intelligence. He claimed emotional intelligence is a far greater predictor of success than
ones intellectual intelligence (IQ) (Bar-On & Parker, 2002). Its focus on both intellect
and emotions combined with the advances in cognitive and affective science offer
intertwining perspectives from which to study how people navigate their lives (Grewal
& Salovey, 2005, p. 339). Emotional intelligence brings together head and heart,
marrying intellect and emotions. The two have sometimes appeared at opposite ends of a
behavioral continuum. Throughout much of history this dichotomy in western
philosophical traditionspredated modern psychology, and reason and intellect were
viewed as opposing forces to supposedly non-rational phenomena like passion, intuition,
feeling, and emotions (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004, p. 81).
Theorists had long been interested in what has now come to be called emotional
intelligence. At various historic points, emotions were viewed as dangerous and
unpredictable and therefore not to be trusted. Stoic philosophers stratified this division,
elevating logic above emotion. Mayer, in hisField Guide to Emotional Intelligence(EI or
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EQ), admits that philosophically the relationship between the mind and emotions, the
head and the heart, has spanned more than 2000 years of Western culture (as cited in
Grewal & Salovey, 2005). Similarly, Bar-On (2001) places EI in a broad context
recognizing the contribution of Charles Darwin, who began his study in 1837 and
published related work in 1872. Darwins demonstration of the major role of emotional
expression in adaptive behavior continues as an important axiom of todays conception of
EI. Leuner first mentioned emotional intelligence in a 1966 German article translated
Emotional Intelligence and Emancipation (as cited in Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts,
2004; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). The first English usage came years later is in an
unpublished doctoral dissertation by Payne (1986; as cited in Matthews, et al.; Ciarrochi,
Fogas, & Mayer, 2001). It is against the backdrop of this long debate about passion and
reason, and perhaps because of it, that the reuniting of head and heart in EI theory has
struck such a cord with academics and the general population.
Emotional intelligence is defined as an array of non-cognitive capabilities,
competencies, and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures (Bar-On, 1997c, p.2). EI is believed to directly
relate to ones ability to succeed in life and to influence an overall sense of psychological
well-being (Bar-On). The genesis of the theory now known as BarOns EQ-i began when
Reuven Bar-On asked Why do some people succeed in possessing better emotional
well-being than others? This gradually evolved into the question Why are some
individuals more able to succeed in life than others? The resulting research led to Bar-
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Ons creation of the first defined theory of emotional intelligence. Bar-Ons model has
five categories that are each divided into subscales. The first category, intrapersonal
skills, includes self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence, and
self-actualization. The second category, interpersonal skills, is broken into empathy,
social responsibility, and interpersonal relationship. The third category is adaptability,
includes reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving. Stress management is divided
into stress tolerance and impulse control. Finally, the fifth category, general mood,
involves optimism and happiness. These components combine to create a theory that is
multifactorial and related to potential for performance rather than performance itself and
is process-oriented rather than outcome-oriented (Bar-On, 1997b, p.3). The BarOn EQ-i
operationally defines and quantitatively describes emotional intelligence. The 15
components can be isolated or dealt with in combination. This allows for a description to
be developed of a particular subject or population, in this case executives leading in non-
profit, faith-based organizations. Once this is created, the skills of emotional intelligence
can be developed thus increasing ones EI. In addition, individuals can be trained in the
elements of EI needed for a particular role or function.
Emotional intelligence includes an array of skills and behaviors that many non-
profit leaders in faith-based organizations would say they value. Very little study has
been done to create a specific portrait of this group of executives. Extensive research has
demonstrated that transformational leadership behaviors increase organizational
effectiveness (Bass, 1999b). To date there has not been a body of study in these areas
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focused on this population. The study will form the basis of a leader development plan to
be used with non-profit executives particularly those leading in faith-based organizations.
Statement of the Problem
The literature review provides evidence that transformational leadership increases
organizational effectiveness and that emotional intelligence can be measured and
developed. If there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational
leadership, leaders can be helped to grow in emotionally intelligent behaviors that will
expand and build their leadership ability. If there are particular qualities of an
emotionally intelligent executive in a non-profit, faith-based organization, then the
development of these characteristics can be built into ongoing succession and
development plans. Also, if there are areas of consistently low emotional intelligence,
further study could consider why this is the case and means created to address and build
the specific competencies. Faith-based organizations typically align themselves to values
congruent with their particular beliefs. The credibility of these leaders rests in their ability
to act consistently with their words, to live what they say they believe. Increasingly
questions are raised when a gap is seen between the stated values of these organizations
and how their members and particularly their leaders behave. Many characteristics of
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership behaviors align with values
espoused in faith-based, non-profit organizations. If there is a relationship between these,
there is a possible means to increase alignment to organizational values. There is a great
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need for a new generation of leaders to be developed within the non-profit sector of faith-
based organizations. What are the characteristics of these leaders and how can they be
developed? The hope behind the questions of this study is that they may lead to some of
the answers to respond to this pressing need.
Rationale
Emotional Intelligence provides a series of skills that can be developed.
Transformational leadership is a type of leadership that has demonstrated effectiveness to
help build organizations. If there is a relationship between these two, then it is reasonable
to believe that leaders can develop the skills to grow in emotionally intelligent behaviors
leading to increasingly transformational styles of leadership behavior. Many of these
actions strongly align with the values of faith-based organizations and could increase a
leaders effectiveness in authentically modeling desired outcomes. This study will
investigate these questions and compare the non-profit executives in faith-based
organizations with the general population and with a similar study focused on
construction executives. This research may provide further areas of discussion and
development for tomorrows executive leaders.
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Research Questions
The focus of the research is the following question: What is the relationship
between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in non-profit executives?
Investigative Questions:
The following investigative questions are addressed in the study:
1. What is the EI composition of non-profit executives?2. Is there a relationship between the emotional intelligence of non-profit
executives and their preferred leadership style?
3. Is there a difference between EQ-i score and choice of leadershipapproaches of non-profit executives with those of construction executives?
Null Hypotheses:
The following are the research hypotheses:
H01. There is no difference in leadership behaviors between non-profit
executives with high EI scores with those having low EI scores
H02. Non-profit executives with higher EI scores do not demonstrate
more transformational leadership behaviors than those with low EI scores
H03. Non-profit executives with lower EI scores do not demonstrate a
greater propensity to use transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors
H04. Non-profit executive leaders and construction executives have no
differences in their EI scores
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H05. Non-profit executive leaders and construction executives have no
difference in their use of transformational leadership behaviors on the MLQ 5X
Significance of the Study
This study is one of only four studies to consider a relationship between EI and
transformational leadership using BarOns EQ-i and the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire. The study will further the research done on construction executives
(Butler, 2005) by asking this question and seeing if there are similarities or differences in
the populations. The study will be formative in the development of a leader development
process for non-profit executives in the researchers organization.
Definition of Terms
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and
skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and
pressures (Bar-On, 1997a). This definition was operationalized in the BarOn Emotional
Quotient Inventory Test (EQ-i), which was described earlier. This test was selected for
the study because it breaks EI into five major areas with fifteen subcomponents.
Leadership Behaviors
There are many definitions of leadership, but one of the most extensively studied
and highly validated is transformational leadership. This model of leadership is the basis
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of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. (MLQ Form 5X) The questionnaire is
derived from the model developed by Avolio and Bass, (2004) which grew out of the
work initially conceived by Burns. The early model included transformational and
transactional leadership; later laissez-faire leadership was added to complete the
continuum for the current test (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Each of these leadership behaviors
will be briefly defined here and discussed later in greater detail later in the study.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational Leadership concerns a focused attempt to arouse awareness and
interest in the organization while seeking to increase the confidence of the individuals or
groups. There is an emphasis on moving with subordinates from merely existing and
producing, to promoting their growth and unique contributions (Gardner & Stough,
2002). The five factors of transformational leadership include: idealized influence
attributed, idealized influence behavior, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation,
and individual consideration (Avolio & Bass, 2004).
Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership refers to the exchange relationship between leader and
follower to meet their own self-interests. This leadership expression may take the form of
contingent reward and or management by exception that is either active or passive
(Avolio & Bass, 2004).
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Laissez-faire Leadership
Laissez-faire leaders avoid taking responsibility; they fail to follow up on requests
for assistance, tend to be absent when required and resist expressing opinions on
important issues (Avolio & Bass, 2002).
Executive Leader
For the purpose of this study executives are those holding leadership roles in the
organizations at the Director, Vice President, Senior Vice President, President, and CEO
level.
Faith-based, non-profit organizations
Faith-based, non-profit organizations are found in the volunteer sector and are
distinguished by the descriptors in the title. They are in the not-for-profit sector and
identify with a particular faith orientation. The work of these organizations cross are a
wide array of activities and usually has a focus of helping people socially, emotional, and
or spiritually. Such organizations fall under Internal Revenue Code Section 501(c)(3) and
encompass the following types of organizations that are exempt from federal income
taxation: religious, charitable, educational, scientific, literary, etc. organizations. Many of
the organizations that qualify for exempt status share the following characteristics: the
organization serves some type of common good, it is not a for-profit entity, its net
earnings do not benefit the members of the organization, and the organization does not
exert political influence. The Internal Revenue Code is a compilation of federal tax
legislation that appears in Title 26 of the U.S. Code. Within the range of these
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organizations the researcher further limited the sample to those 501(c)(3) organizations
that consider themselves to hold a Christian faith-based worldview.
Assumptions and Limitations
Cost
The cost of the study has been kept to a minimum through the use of technology,
including the Internet and e-mail. One mailing was sent to invite participants to join the
study. Prior to this mailing a postcard was sent to alert subjects of the upcoming study
and all subsequent communication were by e-mail.
Accessibility
The choice of non-profit executives leading in faith-based organizations was
driven by the possibility of access. This is a population that the researcher is a member of
in her professional role. Additionally, the researchers organization is well known within
these types of organizations. A further factor promoting access is the researchers
membership in a senior executive roundtable with human resource executives in
Colorados largest non-profit, faith-based organizations. These executives agreed to
encourage the leaders in their organizations to participate.
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Time
Time was a limitation in the study. The researcher, like most executives, has
extensive work responsibilities and understands that the executives participating in the
study may have limited time to respond. The researcher considered the time to complete
the instrument to be less than one hour. Even this is substantial time for an executive
leader to give to the study. The use of the Internet is another time saving element of the
research design. The research was conducted on a website specifically designed for the
study. Participants clicked the e-mail they received and went directly to the study
website. This saved time and decreased the likelihood of difficulties in finding the study
website. A further timesaving element existed in the ability of the researcher to send
reminder e-mails to the subjects.
Nature of the Study
Quantitative research techniques were used to compare the emotional intelligence
(EI) of non-profit executives in faith-based organizations and their leadership behaviors.
A questionnaire gathered demographic data and asked questions related to the leaders
role. BarOns EQ-I tested for emotional intelligence and the leadership style was assessed
using Basss MLQ 5X leadership questionnaire. A description of an emotionally
intelligent, non-profit executive in faith-based organizations will be suggested. Findings
were compared with the general population and a similar study done on construction
executives (Butler, 2005).
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Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The study has been set within the body of literature of emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership in Chapter 2. An outline of the research methodology is
presented in Chapter 3. Findings are reported in Chapter 4. The final chapter, Chapter 5,
includes conclusions and recommendations for further study.
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Emotional intelligence is one of the most discussed topics in both scientific and
popular literature (Averill, 2004, p. 228). Its focus on both head and heart combined
with the advances in cognitive and affective science offer intertwining perspectives from
which to study how people navigate their lives (Grewal & Salovey, 2005, p. 339). An
overview of this theory will be critiqued. A second body of literature focused on how
people choose to lead others and the leadership behaviors they employ will then be
outlined and analyzed. Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership will
be the major categories discussed.
Origins of Emotional Intelligence
The popularity of emotional intelligence has exponentially increased in recent
years (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). The relationship between heart and head,
thinking and emotions, and reason and passion, has been debated across the history of
humanity. Emotional intelligence brings these two together, marrying intellect and
emotions. The two have sometimes appeared at opposite ends of a behavioral continuum.
Throughout much of history this dichotomy in western philosophical traditions
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predated modern psychology, and viewed reason and intellect as opposing forces to
supposedly non-rational phenomena like passion, intuition, feeling, and emotions
(Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004, p. 81). At various historic points, emotions were
viewed as dangerous and unpredictable and therefore not to be trusted. Stoic philosophers
stratified this division, elevating logic above emotion (Grewal & Salovey, 2005). It is
against this backdrop, and perhaps because of it, that the reuniting of head and heart in EI
theory has struck such a cord with academics and the general population. The theory
finds its roots in a long debate about passion and reason, but for the purposes of this
discussion, the more recent elements shaping the development of EI theory will be the
focus.
An Overview of the History of EI
Mayer (2001), in hisField Guide to Emotional Intelligence(EI or EQ) admits that
philosophically the relationship between the mind and emotions, the heart and the head,
have spanned more than 2000 years of Western culture. Similarly, Bar-On (2001) seeks
to place EI in a broad context recognizing the contribution of Charles Darwin, who began
his study in 1837 and published related work in 1872. Darwins demonstration of the
major role of emotional expression in adaptive behavior continues as an important axiom
of todays conception of EI.
Against this vast backdrop, Mayer (2001) clustered the most recent evolution of
emotional intelligence theory into five eras. In period one, 1900-1969, intelligence and
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emotions were considered distinct and separate fields. During period two, 1970-1989, the
precursors of emotional intelligence were identified. From 1990-1993 emotional
intelligence emerged as an identifiable area of focus. The construct was then substantially
broadened and popularized between 1994-1997. In the final period, continuing from that
point until today, Mayer identifies a period of extensive research and the
institutionalization of the construct of emotional intelligence.
Thorndike and Wechsler
Filling in Mayers overview, most theorists agree that Robert Thorndike (1920),
was the first to delineate various elements to intelligence, including three forms:
mechanical, abstract and social. Social Intelligence was defined as the capacity to
understand and to manage others, and to act wisely in interpersonal relationships.
Thorndike, Bergman, Cobb, and Woodyard (1926), mentioned the possibility that people
have social intelligence- the ability to perceive their own and others internal states,
motivation, and behavior, and act accordingly. Once Thorndike delineated social
intelligence, he launched a twenty-year endeavor to measure this dimension of
intelligence. Finally, in exasperation, he expressed doubt that a verbally derived
instrument could be developed to measure social intelligence (Zirkel, 2000).
A few years following this admission, Wechsler, in 1940, concurred with
Thorndikes belief that there are non-intellectual factors, such as affective and cognitive
abilities that should be included in the measure of total intelligence. The study of social
intelligence gradually shifted away from assessing behavior to linking behavior in the
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social context and the individuals understanding of that social context, while
prioritizing their potential for change and adaptability (Zirkel, 2000, p. 5). Key theorists
giving definition to social intelligence include Kelly, Rogers, Rotter, Corbach, Cantor,
and Kihlstrom (Zirkel, 2000). It is Bar-Ons (2001) conviction that what has evolved into
todays versions of emotional intelligence is one and the same with the construct of social
intelligence. His preference would be to refer to the wider construct as emotional and
social intelligence (Bar-On, 2001 p. 85).
First Use of Emotional Intelligence
Leuner first mentioned emotional intelligence formally in a 1966 German article
with the English translation of Emotional Intelligence and Emancipation. The author
studied women separated from their mothers at an early age, and hypothesized that due to
the resultant low emotional intelligence, they tended to reject their social roles. (as cited
in Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004; Mayer, Salovey et al., 2000; Mayer, Salovey, &
Caruso, 2000) Emotional intelligence is believed to be first used in English, in an
unpublished doctoral dissertation by Payne (1985; as cited in Matthews, et al.; Ciarrochi,
Fogas, & Mayer, 2001) With the current level of interest in emotional intelligence, this
may be the most quoted, never published, dissertation in academic history (Matthews et
al.)!
Gardner
Gardner seizes the concept of social and emotional intelligence to develop a
theory of multiple intelligences (Ciarrochi, Fogas, & Mayer, 2001). His theoretical
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Figure 1. Models of Emotional Intelligence (as adapted from Vitello-Cicciu, 2001)
The two main groupings of EI theory, as either ability models or mixed models
continues until today. At their essence, all theories of EI deal with the ability to regulate
emotions in oneself and in others in various ways (Goleman, 2001 p. 14). Within the
ability model, emotional intelligence is intelligence that is defined and measured as a set
of testable abilities. This is in contrast to mixed conceptions that combine personality
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character and social skills. Mayer and Salovey believe restricting EI to an ability model,
focused on the emotionally related processes, allows for a purer examination of the
degree to which EI impacts a persons behavior, beyond the traditional elements of
personality (Salovey, Brackett, & Mayer, 2004). This contrasts with the mixed model
theorists who believe EI arises from diverse roots and can only be fully described and
assessed with a broader range of elements.
Mixed Methods combine a variety of components including personality, skills,
and emotional competencies. Golemans original model had five major components for
personal competencies. These determine how individuals will manage themselves. They
included: 1. self-awareness: knowing ones internal states, preferences, resources, and
intuitions, 2. self-regulation: managing ones internal states, impulses and resources, 3.
motivation: emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals. 4. empathy:
awareness of others feelings, needs and concerns, and finally 5. social skills: being adept
at inducing desirable responses in others (Goleman, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2002).
As Golemans theory evolved, he divided the competencies into personal and
social competencies. Self-awareness and self-management considered a persons ability
to understand their own emotions and manage or control them. The social competencies
included social awareness such as empathy, organizational awareness, and service; and
relational management, including some elements such as inspirational leadership,
influence, change catalyst, and conflict management (Goleman, 2002). A number of
similarities exist with the mixed model created by (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). This
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construct includes the four cornerstones of 1. emotional literacy: being real or true to
ones self, 2. emotional fitness: being clear and getting along, 3. emotional depth:
character and influence, and finally, 4. emotional alchemy: sensing opportunities and
creating a future. This model also combines emotions with character traits and
motivational aspects.
Both Goleman (2002) and Cooper and Sawaf (1997) have a high value on
recognizing emotions as a signal informing a person of some significant occurrence in or
around them. The authors have a high value on taking responsibility for ones emotions
and learning to manage them. In fact, this is also seen as a core competency in Golemans
model.
The following figure, Figure 2, compares two mixed-models and one ability-
model, demonstrating the similarities and differences between them. Each of these
models contains the common area of identifying and managing emotions. Similarly, the
ability to recognize emotions in others and apply them is seen in all of the models. The
way qualities are described varies and may be broken into more categories, but these
elements are present in each of the three models. There are also a number of differences
in the models. Mayer & Salovey (1997), as well as Bar-on (2001), specifically highlight
how emotions can be used in productive thinking and problem solving. In the first model
there is an identified area of assimilating emotions in thought, while in the later model
these elements are found in the adaptability scale.
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Mayer & SaloveyAbility Model
Bar-OnMixed Model
GolemanMixed Model
Overall Definition Overall Definition Overall DefinitionEmotional intelligence is the set
of abilities that account for how
peoples emotional perception and
understanding vary in theiraccuracy. More formally, we
define emotional intelligence asthe ability to perceive and expressemotion, assimilate emotion in
thought, understand and reason
with emotion, and regulate
emotion in the self and others.
Mayer & Salovey (1997)
Emotional intelligence isan
array of non-cognitive
capabilities, competencies, and
skills that influence ones abilityto succeed in coping with
environmental demands andpressures. Bar-On (1997)
The abilities called here
emotional intelligence, which
include self-control, zeal and
persistence, and the ability tomotivate oneself. There is an
old-fashioned word for the bodyof skills that emotionalintelligence represents:
character. Goleman, (1995a)
Major areas of Skills and
Specific Skills
Major areas of Skills and
Specific Skills
Major areas of Skills and
Specific SkillsPerception and Expression of
Emotion:
* Identifying and expressing
emotions in ones physical
states, feelings, and thoughts.
* Identifying and expressingemotions in other people,
artwork, language, etc.
Assimilating Emotion in
Thought:* Emotions prioritize thinking in
productive ways.
* Emotions generate aids to
judgment and memory.
Understanding and Analyzing
Emotion:
* Ability to label emotions andsimultaneous feelings.
* Ability to understand
relationships associated with
shifts of emotion.Reflective Regulation of
Emotion:* Ability to stay open to feelings
* Ability to reflectively monitor
and regulate emotions.
Intrapersonal Skills:
* Emotional self-awareness,
* Assertiveness,
* Self-Regard
* Self-Actualization,
* Independence
Interpersonal Skills:
* Interpersonal Relationships
* Social Responsibility* Empathy
Adaptability Scales:
* Problem Solving
* Reality Testing
* Flexibility
Stress-Management Scales:
* Stress Tolerance
* Impulse
* Control
General Mood:* Happiness
* Optimism
Knowing Ones Emotions:
* Recognizing a feeling as it
happens
* Monitoring feelings from
moment to moment
Managing Emotions* Handling feelings so they are
appropriate, ability to soothe
oneself, ability to shake off
rampant anxiety, gloom, orirritability
Motivating Oneself:
* Marshalling emotions in the
service of a goal.
* Delaying gratification and
stifling impulsiveness, being
able to get into the flow stateRecognizing Emotions in Others:
*Empathic awareness and
attunement to what others need
or wantHandling Relationships:
* Skill in managing emotions inothers.
* Interacting smoothly with
others
Figure 2. Three Models of Emotional Intelligence
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The Popularization of Emotional Intelligence
Golemans name (1995) will be forever linked with the concept of emotional
intelligence. His bestselling bookEmotional Intelligence(EI) asked on the cover Why it
(EI) can matter more than IQ? His claim that emotional intelligence is a far greater
predictor of success than ones intellectual intelligence (IQ) captured the worlds
imagination (Bar-On & Parker, 2002). His book quickly became a bestseller and began
an avalanche of interest in emotional intelligences influence. In the midst of this
popularity, EI miscellaneous applications have earned it the scholars dubious
designation of being the most protean of all psychological constructs, a virtual tower
of Babel and a present day zeitgeist (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004, p. 9;
Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso, 2000, p. 92).
There are a number of possible reasons why Goldmans theory struck such a note
of resonance with the general populace. Just prior to the publication ofEmotional
Intelligencethe book The Bell Curve was published(Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts,
2004; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). Herrnstein and Murrays book touts intelligence
as the best predictor of success. This seemingly pessimistic message of a cognitive elite,
may have laid the groundwork for the immediate acceptance and widespread
embracing of Golemans more utopian, classless society, unconstrained by biological
heritage (Matthews et al., 2004, p. 6, 7). Golemans theory brought the hope of an
intelligence that could be developed and was directly linked to success.
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The EI issue also took center stage in a Time(Gibbs, 1995) magazine cover story in
the year following Golemans book (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). During this
same time frame, aHarvard Business Review (HBR) article summarizing Golemans
theory of EI was published and has since had the highest percentage of readers of any
article published by HBR in the past 40 years (as cited in Cherniss, 2000). The popularity
of Golemans theory in such a respected business journal put the question of EIs
potential impact in the forefront of business leaders thinking. Goleman claims EI is
related to ones success and is in fact, the most critical of all capacities for engaging in
lifes challenges (Goleman, 1995).
The potential for increased effectiveness as proposed by Goldman would cause
most reasonable business leaders to at least consider the possible applications of
emotional intelligence theory within their business context. Two-thirds of companies
linked superior performance to emotional or social qualities such as self-confidence,
flexibility, persistence, empathy, and the ability to get along with others (Cherniss, 2000
p.449). In addition, Cherniss says ninety percent of the necessary competencies for
leadership positions are emotional and social in nature. This has resulted in the
willingness of companies within the American context to spend $50 billion annually on
training, much of it in the areas of social and emotional capacities. Four out of five
companies reported spending training dollars to promote emotional intelligence. The
areas believed most essential for training include developing greater emotional self-
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awareness, self-management, and empathy as well as building social skills (Cherniss,
2000, p. 449).
Golemans Theory
Golemans theory of emotional intelligence has continued to evolve since it was
first introduced in 1995 (Goleman, 1995, 1998, 2002). The evolution has simplified and
focused the theory, as well as specifically applying EI to leadership and leadership styles.
The previous model included five domains. These have now been simplified to include
four domains: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relational
management, with eighteen competencies instead of the original twenty-five (Goleman,
2002). The most striking shift in this evolution is the departure from elements of the
framework categorized as social skills and empathy.
The criticisms of Golemans model, as an eclectic mixture of various constructs,
may have influenced the shifts present in his current construct. It appears to more cleanly
delineate between elements of EI relating to the individual and those relating with others.
The factors previously grouped as social skills and empathy have been recast under the
broad categories of social awareness and relational management (Goleman, 2002).
These categories provide a more defined umbrella than the previous components,
and may well simplify the theory, making it more memorable and readily accessible
particularly in a business setting. Golemans current iteration of the theory has personal
and social competencies, each divided into awareness and management. The personal
competencies focus on the capacity essential to manage oneself. These are grouped in
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two categories, that of self-awareness and of self-management. Similarly, the social
competencies, those capacities that determine how one manages relationships, are divided
into social awareness, and relational management (Goleman, 1998, 2002).
These broad categories seem to provide a much more easily managed and clearly
delineated construct. EI can now be described in a relatively simple sentence such as
Emotional Intelligence is about how we read and manage our emotion, and how well we
read and engage with the emotion of those around us. Goleman summarizes the body of
EI theory as the abilities to recognize and regulate emotions in ourselves and in others
(Goleman, 2001b, p.14). Though this simplification may potentially heighten criticism, it
has similarly decreased barriers for popular engagement and consideration.
The big idea of Golemans theory may be readily grasped, and this simplicity is
reinforced by a well thought out theory and a contextualized expression of EI in
leadership. The theory of emotional intelligence domains and their associated
competencies focus around four major areas: self-awareness and self-management as the
personal competencies and social awareness and relationship management as social
competencies (Goleman, 2002).
Each of these competencies has a series of components. The first element of the
personal competencies is self-awareness, which is reading ones own emotions and
recognizing their impact for using ones gut sense in making decisions. Secondly, there
is accurate self-knowledge, the ability to know ones own strengths and limitations. The
final component of self-awareness includes self-confidence, where one has an accurate or
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sound sense of ones capacities and worth. Goleman (2002) begins his theory with the
leader developing the capacity to know him or herself. A wise leader once said be a
student of life, a student of others, and a student of yourself (W. Wiersbe in a personal
conversation, 1978). Golemans theory reflects this same sentiment. The degree to which
the leader understands his or her own internal workings will directly relate to their ability
to understand others.
Self-management is made up of six competencies, including the ability to control
ones emotions; here one needs to keep disruptive emotions and impulses under control.
Second is transparency, the ability to display integrity and honesty in ones emotions,
which creates a sense of trustworthiness. Adaptability follows with flexibility in dealing
with changes in situations and overcoming obstacles. Achievement includes the ability or
drive to improve performance to meet ones internal standard of excellence. The
readiness to act and take advantage of opportunities is considered initiative. A final
quality of self-management is optimism, the ability to see the positive elements in events.
The second domain of emotional intelligence is social competence. These
capabilities relate to how one manages relationships. The two areas of social awareness
and relational management similarly have a variety of competencies. Social awareness
includes empathy, which is the ability to sense others emotions, truly gaining an
understanding of their perspective, and actively engaging in their concerns.
Organizational awareness includes knowledge of current events, networks, where
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decisions are created, and politics at the organizational level. Finally, service is ones
response to customer, client, and followers needs (Goleman, 2002).
Relational management includes the capacity to be an inspirational leader, able to
give guidance and motivation, generated by a compelling vision. Influence flows from an
ability to persuade others with a variety of methods. The ability to develop others focuses
on recognizing abilities and providing opportunities to use these, while providing
feedback and guidance. Being a change catalyst, able to lead in a new direction, and
initiate, and manage the process is the next competency. Next, conflict resolution
includes managing disagreements, as well as being able to build bonds and cultivate a
web of relationships. Finally, the capacity for collaboration and teamwork makes up the
relational management cluster (Goleman, 2002).
The applications of the social competencies are at the core of much of a leaders
key functions. Goleman (2002) has provided clarity to the elements that are readily
grasped and interacted over. The social awareness area is somewhat truncated and could
have included other components, but again, this may have excessively complicated the
theory decreasing potential utilization. Now that the basic components of Golemans
theory have been clarified, an overview of Bar-Ons EI model will be provided.
BarOn EQ-i Theory
Bar-Ons model of emotional intelligence was initially developed before Goleman
popularized the concept (Bar-On, 1997c). The major elements of the theory will be
discussed with the connection to Golemans model of emotional intelligence for leaders.
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Emotional Self-Awareness (ES): Emotional self-awareness is the ability to
recognize ones feelings. It is not only the ability to be aware of ones feelings and
emotions, but also to differentiate between them, to know what one is feeling and why,
and to know what caused the feelings.
Assertiveness (AS): Assertiveness is the ability to express feelings, beliefs, and
thoughts and to defend ones right in a nondestructive manner. Assertiveness is
composed of three basic components: (1) the ability to express feelings, (2) the ability to
express beliefs and thoughts openly, and (3) the ability to stand up for personal rights.
Assertive people are not overly controlled or shy- they are able to outwardly express their
feelings outwardly, without being aggressive or abusive.
Independence (IN): Independence is the ability to be self-directed and self-
controlled in ones thinking and actions and to be free of emotional dependency.
Independent people are self-reliant in planning and making important decisions. They
may, however, seek and consider other peoples opinions before making the right
decision for themselves in the end; consulting others is not necessarily a sign of
dependency. Independence is essentially the ability to function autonomously versus
needing protection and support -independent people avoid clinging to others in order to
satisfy their emotional needs. The ability to be independent rests on ones degree of self-
confidence, inner strength, and desire to meet expectations and obligations, without
becoming a slave to them.
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Self-Actualization (SA): Self-actualization pertains to the ability to realize ones
potential capacities. This component of emotional intelligence manifests through
becoming involved in pursuits that lead to a meaningful, rich, and full life. Striving to
actualize ones potential involves developing enjoyable and meaningful activities and can
mean a lifelong effort and an enthusiastic commitment to long-term goals. Self-
actualization is an ongoing, dynamic process of striving towards maximum development
of ones abilities, capacities, and talents. This factor is associated with persistently trying
to do ones best and trying to improve oneself in general. Excitement about ones
interests energizes and motivates him or her to continue these interests.
Interpersonal Skills:
Empathy (EM): Empathy is the ability to be aware of, to understand, and to
appreciate the feelings of others. It is tuning in to what, how, and why people feel the
way they do. Being empathetic means being able to emotionally read other people.
Empathetic people care about others and show interest in and concern for others.
Social Responsibility (RE): Social responsibility isthe ability to demonstrate
oneself as a cooperative, contributing, and constructive member of ones social group.
This ability involves acting in a responsible manner even though one may not benefit
personally. Socially responsible people have social consciousness and a basic concern for
others, manifested by being able to take on community-oriented responsibilities. This
component relates to the ability to do things for and with others, accepting others, acting
in accordance with ones conscience, and upholding social rules. These people possess
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interpersonal sensitivity and are able to accept others and use their talents for the good of
the collective, not just the self. People who are deficient in this ability may entertain
antisocial attitudes, act abusively toward others, and take advantage of others.
Interpersonal Relations (IR): Interpersonal relations skill involves the ability to
establish and maintain mutually satisfying relationships that are characterized by
intimacy and by giving and receiving affection. Mutual satisfaction includes meaningful
social interchanges that are potentially rewarding and enjoyable. Positive interpersonal
relationship skill is characterized by the ability to give and receive warmth and affection
and to convey intimacy to another human being. This component is not only associated
with the desirability of cultivating friendly relations with others, but with the ability to
feel at ease and comfortable in such relations and to possess positive expectations
concerning social intercourse. This emotional skill generally requires sensitivity toward
others, a desire to establish relations, and feeling satisfied with relationships.
Adaptability:
Reality Testing (RT): Reality testing is the ability to assess the correspondence
between what is experienced and what objectively exists. Reality testing involves a search
for objective evidence to confirm, justify, and support feelings, perceptions, and thoughts.
Reality testing involves turning in to the immediate situation, attempting to keep things
in the correct perspective, and experiencing things as they really are, without excessively
fantasizing or daydreaming about them. The emphasis is on pragmatism, objectivity, the
adequacy of ones perception and authenticating ones ideas and thoughts. An important
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systematic in persevering and approaching problems. The skill is also linked to a desire to
do ones best and to confront problems, rather than avoiding them.
Stress Management:
Stress Tolerance (ST): Stress tolerance is the ability to withstand adverse events
and stressful situations without falling apart by actively and positively coping with
stress. It is the ability to weather difficult situations without getting too overwhelmed.
This ability is based on (1) the capacity to choose courses of action for coping with stress,
(2) an optimistic disposition toward new experiences and change in general, and towards
ones ability to successfully overcome the specific problem at hand, and (3) a feeling that
one can control or influence the stressful situation. This component of emotional
intelligence is very similar to what has been referred to as ego strength and positive
coping. Stress tolerance includes having a repertoire of suitable responses to stressful
situations. It is associated with the capacity to be relaxed and composed and to calmly
face difficulties, without getting carried away by strong emotions. People who have good
stress tolerance tend to face crises and problems, rather than surrendering to feelings of
helplessness and hopelessness. Anxiety often results when this component of emotional
intelligence is not functioning adequately, which has an ill effect on general performance
because of poor concentration, difficulty in making decisions, and somatic problems like
sleep disturbance.
Impulse Control (IC): Impulse control is the ability to resist or delay an impulse,
drive, or temptation to act. It entails a capacity for accepting ones aggressive impulses,
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being composed, and controlling aggression, hostility, and irresponsible behavior.
Problems in impulse control are manifested by low frustration tolerance, impulsiveness,
anger control problems, abusiveness, loss of self-control, and explosive and unpredictable
behavior.
General Mood:
Optimism (OP): Optimism is the ability to look at the brighter side of life and to
maintain a positive attitude even in the face of adversity.Optimism assumes a measure of
hope in ones approach to life. It is a positive approach to daily living. Optimism is the
opposite of pessimism, which is a common symptom of depression.
Happiness (HA): Happiness is the ability to feel satisfied with ones life, to enjoy
oneself and others, and to have fun. Happiness combines self-satisfaction, general
contentment, and the ability to enjoy life. This component of emotional intelligence
involves the ability to enjoy various aspects of ones life and life in general. Happy
people often feel good and at ease in both work and leisure; they are able to let their hair
down and enjoy opportunities to have fun. Happiness is associated with a general feeling
of cheerfulness and enthusiasm. Happiness is a by-product and/or barometric indicator of
ones overall degree of emotional intelligence and emotional functioning. A person who
demonstrates a low degree of this factor may possess symptoms typical of depression,
such as a tendency to worry, uncertainty about the future, social withdrawal, lack of
drive, depressive thoughts, feelings of guilt, dissatisfaction with ones life and, in extreme
cases, suicidal thoughts and behavior (Bar-On, 2002, p. 15-18).
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Bar-Ons theory of emotional intelligence can be tested using the BarOn EQ-i.
The EQ-i is scored similarly to the IQ test. The average score of 100 with a standard
deviation of 15 and is based on 3831 participants in the North American sample (Bass,
2000, p. 26). A score of 130 and above is considered markedly high and atypically well
developed. 90-100 is average and less than 70 is considered markedly low and may
indicate impaired emotional capacity. More details of the test will follow in the
methodology section, but first a discussion of the validity of the concept of emotional
intelligence must be considered.
Is EI a Distinctive Construct?
This overview of the models highlights the similarities and differences of the four
models. A major question confronting the various theories of emotional intelligence
relates to the overall distinctiveness of emotional intelligence. Is it merely a new label
for existing constructs or is it indeed a new construct (Neubauer and Freudenthaler,
2005, p. 48)?
Historically, personality theory is one of the best-defined constructs, so the
relationship of EI to personality theory is a helpful place to begin a discussion of its
distinctiveness. Salovey and Sluyter (1997) overlay the three major EI models with
personality theory, and its major subsystems. Figure 3 highlights the overlap of Bar-On,
Goleman, and Mayer and Salovey theories with the established qualities of personalitys
intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). In the figure
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each theorist is given a symbol to identify elements from their respective theories. Bar-
On uses a , Goleman a !, and Mayer-Saloveya ". This allows for the elements of the
major theories to be identified with components of personality theory.
Satisfying Internal Needs Responding to the External World
Intrapersonal Qualities
Interpersonal Skills
!Motivating Oneself
Interpersonal Qualities
Interpersonal Skills
!Handling Relationships
Motivational and
Emotions Interactions
Stress
Managements Skill
Emotional and Cognitive Interactions
" Perception of Emotion !Knowing Ones
Emotion
" Facilitating Emotion !Recognizing
in Thought Emotions in Others
" Understanding Emotion !Managing Emotions
" Regulating Emotions
High:
LearnedModels
Middle:
Interactive
Functions
Low:
Biologically
RelatedMechanism
Motivational
Directions
Emotional Qualities
General Mood
Cognitive Abilities
Adaptability Skills
Bar-On (1997) !Goleman (1995) " Mayer-Salovey (1997)
Figure 3. Personality and Its Major Subsystems
A lack of substantial overlap between the three theories is evident to some degree.
The greatest overlap with personality theory is in the emotional and cognitive
interactions. Here Goleman, Bar-On, as well as Mayer and Salovey, have major
theoretical components commonly associated with personality. Bar-On and Goleman
Purpose of Subsystem
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both have included intra and interpersonal qualities, overlapping with personality theory,
while Mayer and Saloveys theory is more associated with the middle interactive
function, where personality skills are defined. There is overlap with Goleman in some of
the acknowledged lower biologically related personality mechanisms.
EI theories have significant overlap with personality theory, but it would not be
accurate to view them as lacking distinctiveness. EI theory may include personality
qualities but EI is broader and more inclusive. The question of EI being a distinct
construct is only one of a variety of criticisms confronting the EI theories. These
criticisms will now be considered in more depth.
Critique of EI Models
EIs exuberant following has led to a similar burst of critics. An overarching
concern is the number of measures, practices, and interventions that have emerged before
critical questions have been answered though empirical research (Wilhelm, 2005). The
most comprehensive criticism of EI and the various models has come from Matthews,
Zeidner, and Roberts highlighting of seven myths of EI theory (Matthews, Zeidner, &
Roberts, 2004). These so called seven myths of EI will serve as an outline for the broader
criticisms of the EI construct. The authors believe that there are major conceptual,
psychometric, and applied problems and issues to be overcome, before EI can be
considered a genuine, scientifically validated construct, with real life practical
significance (Matthews et al.). These authors have categorized EI as primarily a
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cheerleading function, focused on whipping up support for interventions based on
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral skills (Matthews et al.).
The So-called Seven Myths of EI
The first myth considers the conceptual coherence of EI definitions. Mathews,
Roberts, and Zeidner (2004), see a number of different and divergent definitions that vary
in their internal cohesion. They identify the need for consensus between researchers on a
definition of emotional intelligence and a greater connection to the existing body of
theory for emotion, personality, and intelligence.
Myth two questions the standardization of the psychometric criteria in the
measurement of EI. There is little convergence between the ability based and self-report
based tests. Content validity is questionable due to conceptual problems, similar
constructs and predictive validities. These theorists believe EI has demonstrated some
promising beginnings, but believe the validity is limited as yet (Matthews, Roberts, &
Zeidner, 2004; Neubauer & Freudenthaler, 2005). A related concern focuses on EI tests
bypassing critical steps to arbitrarily defined sampling domains and processes (Perez,
Petrides, & Furnham, 2005).
Myth three highlights the distinction of personality constructs from self-report
emotional intelligence tests. Personalitys Big Five, particularly optimism, empathy,
and self-esteem demonstrate substantial overlap. This lack in discriminate validity with
personality theory substantially diminishes the usability of a self-report test (Matthews,
Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). Similarly, Brody finds that there is no convincing evidence
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that the MSCEIT provides incremental predictive validity over and above standard
measures of intelligence and personality (Brody, 2004, p. 237). Various combinations of
constructs are discussed with the common theme of delineating one from the other and
highlighting areas of overlap. Some have recommended the need to establish discriminate
and convergent validity of crystallized and fluid abilities in the major domains of
emotional, academic, and social intelligence (Kang, Day, & Meara, 2005). Other theorists
add the category of practical intelligence (Austin & Saklofske, 2005).
The fourth myth questions if emotional intelligence ability tests meet the criteria
of cognitive intelligence. The substantial challenges in standardizing vertical criteria, and
in scoring EI ability tests, leave questions regarding the measure of a true ability
(Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). The self-report tests appear to largely index
personality traits rather than abilities (MacCann, Mathews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2003),
and remain rather contained to a psychometrically driven focus (Neubauer &
Freudenthaler, 2005).
Myth five focuses on the assumption that emotional intelligences relationship
with emotion is similar to IQs relationship with cognition. Mathews, Zeidner, and
Roberts find the separation of the emotional and cognitive systems as distinctive
intelligence to be conceptually confusing and in conflict with substantial bodies of theory
related to self-regulation and emotion (Matthews et al.). They highlight four defined
constructs worthy of further delineation: temperament, information processing, emotional
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self-confidence and emotional knowledge and skills (Zeidner, Roberts, & Matthews
2004).
The sixth myth queries the predictive ability of EI on adaptive coping. In question
are the veracity of correlations between coping skills and various outcome measures. The
authors question as simplistic a single continuum to differentiate individual adaptation
(Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004).
Finally, myth seven focuses on the assertions of EI as essential for success in the
real world. The lack of applied studies to support this belief is highlighted, in addition to
the costly nature of EI training interventions, with their proposed benefit (Matthews,
Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). Specific to the issue of leader effectiveness, Antonakis states
the empirical evidence of EIs impact on leader emergence or effectiveness as
nonexistent, or very weak at best, and contradictory at worst (Antonakis, 2003, p. 359).
Further concern focuses on the increasingly common EI educational programs in the
academic setting that lack a scientifically and theoretically sound base (Goetz, Frenzel,
Pekrun, & Hall, 2005).
A Response
Despite such harsh criticism, emotional intelligence is a topic that transcends
disciplines and fields (Schmidt, 2004, p. 442). EI provides an important conceptual
framework for guiding research on emotional phenomena (Barrett & Salovey, 2002, p.
7). Emotional intelligence is viewed as an intelligence that operates on and with
emotional information, such as the meaning of emotions, emotional patterns, and
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sequences, and the appraisals of the relationships they reflect (Mayer, Salovey, &
Caruso, 2004, p. 209). These authors had two responses to the criticism of Mathews,
Zeidner, and Roberts. First, they sought to separate themselves from Golemans claims of
EIs as the best predictor of success in life (Goleman, 1995, p. 34) by stating such
claims do a disservice to the field and by reminding the reader of their frequent
arguments against such claims (Mayer, et al., 2004 b, p. 206).
Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso also have a number of comments on their MSCEIT
test countering the criticism leveled against them (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004).
They conceded that some of the criticism is indeed legitimate, especially in the near
infinite list of desirable, but possibly unattainable criteria for just about any measurement
procedure (Mayer, et al., 2004 b, p. 211). Other theorists suggest there is hope in using
consensus based scoring as way forward to measure validity (Legree, Psotka, Tremble, &
Bourne, 2005). A general affirmation of the MSCEIT as the most ambitions and, to date,
the most appropriate approach to the broad assessment of emotions related capabilities,
furthers the dialogue on EI testing in the positive direction (Wilhelm, 2005, p. 149).
With full recognition of some of the testing challenges, a number of theorists
affirm the promising nature of EI. Researchers are considering applications of EI within
the field of clinical psychology for possible applications in treatment of disorders such as
those associated with alexithymia (Parker, 2005). Others go as far as viewing EI as the
most promising of the new constructs emerging from psychological science that is
directed towards improving the human condition (Roberts, Schulze, Zeidner, &
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Mathews, 2005, p. 312). What is most striking about this affirmation is that three of the
authors now affirming EI were the very ones to scathingly highlight the Seven Myths of
EI (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004).
This concludes the overview of emotional intelligence. Despite challenges to the
theory, most agree that the relevance and application of the theory has significant
potential benefits in business and everyday life. Next an overview of transformational
leadership theory will be provided.
History of Transaction and Transformational Leadership
Burns first introduced the model of transactional and transformational leadership
in 1978. In the intervening years, this seminal work has spawned extensive research,
supporting the distinction between, and the impact of, these expressions of leadership
(Bass, 1999a). Transformational leadership theory finds its roots in the Socratic and
Confucian typologies advocacy of moral character and virtue (Bass). This moral
character forms the foundation for a transformational leader to motivate followers
towards transcendent goals and higher levels of self-actualized needs, rather than a
simple exchange relationship with followers (Burns, 1978). Transformational leadership
occurs when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of employees, while generating
awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, they stir their
employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group (Bass, 1990).
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The Model
Bass originally conceived transactional and transformational leadership to
include seven leadership factors including: charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation,
individualized consideration, contingent rewards, management-by-exception, and laissez-
faire leadership (Bass, 1985). Gradually, the lack of empirical distinction between
charismatic and inspirational leadership led to collapsing these two factors into one, and
the current six-factor model of transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1988,
1997, 1997 Summer; Bass & Avolio, 1990). In spite of this shift, charismatic leadership
is seen as central in the transformational leadership process, and has resulted in the model
at times being called Charismatic/Transformational Leadership (Bass, 1985).
Transformational leadership is built on an augmented expression of transactional
leadership, as it contributes to subordinate effort, satisfaction, and effectiveness (Seltzer
& Bass, 1990, p. 695). Transactional leadership focuses on the elements of contingent
rewards, management-by-exception, and laissez-faire leadership. The four components of
transformational leadership include: idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1988, 1997; Bass &
Avolio, 1990). These elements are in contrast with pseudo-transformational leadership by
demonstrating: 1. moral character and genuine concern for others and self, 2. deeply
embedded ethical values as the foundation for the leaders vision and articulation of
programs that followers are free to embrace or reject, and 3. the foundational morality for
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processing social and ethical actions or choices, where followers and the leaders
collectively engage (Bass & Steidimeier, 1999).
The two models of transformational leadership and EI have tremendous
relevance for each other. The transformational leadership models emphasis on clearly
articulating a vision as well as explaining how it can be reached, overlaps with
Golemans visionary leadership style. A visionary style has been demonstrated as the
most effective of the six leadership styles. The capacity to continually remind people of
the larger picture and gain meaning, amidst the dailies of the work world, results in
shared objectives and connections with peoples own motivations and interests. Visionary
leadership tends to result in inspired work (Goleman, 2002). Visionary leaders do well in
a variety of business situations, particularly when changes are needed. The visionary
mode comes naturally to transformational leaders who seek to radically change an
organization (Goleman, 2002 p.58).
This leadership style draws on the EI competencies such as self-confidence,
empathy, and acting as a change agent. Bass identifies the highest expression of
transformational leadership as charismatic or idealized influence, followed by
inspirational influence. The latter may also involve Golemans affiliative leadership. Both
are involved in the process of vision casting and realization.
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Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003). The emotional awareness of an emotionally intelligent
leader facilitates the development of this type of trust. The accurate self-assessment and
self-confident approach in combination with a humble, genuine transparency builds this
sense of trustworthiness in the hearts of followers. At times the leaders empathy and
willingness to serve those he or she leads may further develop this trust (Bass, 1997;
Goleman, 2002).
In addition to trust, the broad application of transformational and transactional
leadership has even been demonstrated in the military, (Bass, Jung, Avolio, & Berson,
2003) and trans-cultural settings (Bass, 1997). Todays increasingly globalized
marketplace and military theatre are prime contexts for transformational and transactional
leadership application.
One study placed world-class industrial, political, and military leaders along a
continuum from transformational to transactional leadership. Transformational leadership
factors included charismatic, individualist consideration, and intellectual stimulation,
while the transactional leaders were characterized by a focus on contingent reward and
management by exception. Each of these leaders was given a mean factor score. The
extensive list of world leaders living and dead could provide a provocative foundation for
a study projecting emotional intelligence with these transactional and transformational
designations (Bass, Avolio, & Goodheim, 1987). In these varied settings, a leader would
need to show many of the competencies in the relationship management domain. The
need to act as a catalyst for change, to work through conflict, to build strong networks, to
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develop future leaders and to influence and inspire, would most likely be characteristics
of the leaders most strongly identified as transformational (Goleman, 2002).
Leadership and Organizational Culture
The Organizations culture develops in large part from its leadership (Bass &
Avolio, 1993, p.112). Cultures that are highly satisfying and innovative will tend to see
more transformational leaders demonstrating foundational presuppositions such as:
people are trustworthy and purposeful; everyone has a unique contribution to make; and
complex problems are handled at the lowest possible level (Bass & Avolio, 1993, p.
113). These leaders inspire ownership in a clearly stated vision and readily empower
others to attain their shared vision. Transformational leaders delight to teach and develop
people, with recognition of their strengths and unique motivations or contributions. These
leaders promote a dynamic, nimble environment that readily adapts and views change
positively (Bass & Avolio, 1993). The resonance created by a strongly emotionally
intelligent leader can be one of the strongest influences on corporate culture (Abraham,
2005). Goleman cites a Hays Group study that found a leaders EI may be the most
important driver in the corporate climate. The organizations climate is believed to be
responsible for twenty to thirty percent of its performance (Goleman, 2001a). A
transformational leader can use this ability to influence the environment along the values
and mission of the organization. Clearly emotional intelligence competencies are highly
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challenges of construct validity and the numerous criticisms of the lack of scholarly
studies (Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004). In the area of emotional intelligence this is
dramatically evident within the executive population. The ways emotional intelligence
impacts an executives effectiveness is worthy of scholarly focus.
Possible reasons for this apparent gap in the study of emotional intelligence may be
due to issues of access and motivation. The challenge of gaining access to executive
leaders who are busy and possibly unwilling to participate in academic studies may be a
primary reason why so few research studies exist. Additionally, the time required to
complete testing and or interviews, apart from a personal commitment or interest in the
topic, may be very difficult to secure. The economic gap and/or social