EFFECT OF VEGETABLE AND MINERAL OIL-IN-WATER
EMULSION CUTTING FLUIDS IN TURNING AISI 4340
STEEL WITH COATED CARBIDE TOOLS
SUNDAY ALBERT LAWAL
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
KUALA LUMPUR
2013
ii
UNIVERISTY MALAYA
ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION
Name of Candidate: Sunday Albert Lawal
Registration/Matric No: KHA100081
Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy
Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this work”): Effect of Vegetable
and Mineral Oil-in-Water Emulsion Cutting Fluids in Turning AISI 4340 Steel with
Coated Carbide Tools
Field of Study: Machining
I do solemnly and sincerely declare that:
(1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work;
(2) This Work is original;
(3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for
permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract form, or reference to or reproduction of any
copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and
its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work;
(4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of
this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work;
(5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright of this Work to the University of
Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any
reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the
written consent of UM having been first had and obtained;
(6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright
whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subjected to legal action or any other action as
may be determined by UM.
Candidate’s Signature Date: 30/10/2013
Subscribed and solemnly declared before,
Witness’s Signature Date:
Name:
Designation:
iii
UNIVERISTY MALAYA
PERAKUAN KEASLIAN PENULISAN
Nama: Sunday Albert Lawal
No. Pendaftaran/Matrik: KHA 100081
Nama Ijazah: Doktor Falsafah
Tajuk kertas Projek/ Laporan Penyelidikan/Disertasi /Tesis ( “Hasil Kerji ini”): Kesan sayuran dan
Mineral Minyak dalam Air Emulsi Keratan Cecair dalam pusing AISI 4340 Steel dengan bersalut
karbida Alat
Bidang Penyelidkan: pemesinan
Saya dengan sesungguhnya dan sebenarnya mengaku bahawa:
(1) Saya adalah satu-satunya pengarang/penulis Hasil Kerja ini,
(2) Hasil Kerja ini adalah asli;
(3) Apa-apa penggunaan mana-mana hasil kerja yang mengandungi hakcipta telah dilakukan secara
urusan yang wajar dan bagi maksud yang dibenarkan dan apa-apa petikan, ekstrak, rujukan atau
pengeluaran semula daripada atau kepada mana-mana hasil kerja yang mengandungi hakcipta
telah dinyatakan dengan sejelasnya dan secukupnya dan satu pengikitirafan tajuk hasil kerja terja
tersebut dan pengarang/penulisnya telah dilakukan di dalam Hasil Kerja ini.
(4) Saya tidak mempunyai apa-apa pengetahuan sebenar atau patut semunasabahnya tahu bahawa
penghasilan Hasil Kerja ini melanggar suatu hakcipahasil kerja yang lain,
(5) Saya dengan ini menyerahkan kesemua dan tia-tiap hak yang terkandung di dalam hakcipta Hasil
Kerja ini Universiti Malaya (“UM”) yang seterusnya mula dari sekarang adalah tuan punya
kepada hakcipta di dalam Hasil Kerja ini dan apa-apa pengeluaran semula atau penggunaan
dalam apa jua bentuk atau dengan apa juga cara sekalipun adalah dilarang tanpa terlebih dahulu
mendapat kebenaran bertulis dari UM,
(6) Saya sedar sepenuhnya sekiranya dalam masa penghasilan Hasil Kerja ini saya telah melanggar
suatu hakcipa hasil kerja yang lain sama ada dengan niat atau sebaliknya, saya boleh dikenakan
tindakan undang-undang atau apa-apa tindakan lain sebagaimana yang disputuskan oleh UM.
Tandatangan Calon Tarikh
Diperbuat dan sesungguhnya diakui di hadapan,
Tandatanga Saksi Tarikh
Nama:
Jawatan:
iv
ABSTRACT
Cutting fluids have been used extensively and play a significant role in machining
processes. Cutting fluids affect the productivity of machining operations, tool life,
quality of workpiece and prevent the cutting tool and machine from overheating as well.
In general, a successful cutting fluid must not only improve the machining process
performance, but also fulfill a number of requirements which are non-toxic, non-
harmful to health for operators, not a fire hazard, not smoke or fog in use and cost less.
One of the drawbacks of using conventional (mineral) oil based cutting fluids is the
waste disposal after being used. Mineral oil has also poor biodegradability thus induces
the potential for long term pollution of the environment. In this study, a comprehensive
literature review of application of vegetable oil-based cutting fluids in machining
different workpiece materials with different tool materials was done.
This study is divided into two main sections, the first section focused on the properties
of palm kernel and cottonseed oils and formulation of oil-in-water emulsion cutting
fluids using the two oils. The selection of cutting fluid additives (emulsifier,
anticorrosive agent, antioxidant and biocide) for the formulation of oil-in-water
emulsion using palm kernel and cottonseed oils are not dangerous or problematic to the
environment or harmful to workers. The formulation of cutting fluid was based on
Design of Experiment (DOE) of 24 full factorial designs and statistical analysis of the
response value (pH) was employed using version 6 of DOE® software. The pH values of
10.46 and 10.98 were obtained for the palm kernel oil and cottonseed oil respectively,
which are within the acceptable standard for cutting fluid for machining processes.
The second section considered the effect of the two formulated oil-in-water emulsion
cutting fluids in turning AISI 4340 steel with coated carbide tools and compared with
conventional (mineral) oil-based cutting fluid. Taguchi method with L27 (34) orthogonal
v
array for experimentation was adopted. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were
output variables considered for experimentation. In addition to the cutting parameters,
type of cutting fluid used was also considered as one of the critical input parameters
while designing the experiment. Cutting force, surface roughness and tool wear are the
output parameters obtained from the trials conducted as per L27 array experimentation
and further analyzed. Minitab 14 statistical analysis software widely used in engineering
application was used in the analysis of signal- to- noise (S/N) (dB) ratio and ANOVA
for surface roughness, cutting force and tool wear. The ANOVA analysis shows that
cutting speed (64.46%) and feed rate (32.19%) significantly affected surface roughness.
Depth of cut (33.15%) and cutting fluid (51.12%) significantly affected cutting force
and while cutting speed (85.36%) and feed rate (4.81%) significantly affected tool wear.
The effect of cutting fluids on the type of chip formed was equally accounted for.
Confirmation tests applied for Taguchi results and regression equations indicate reliable
results.
vi
ABSTRAK
Bendalir pemotong telah digunakan secara meluas dan memainkan peranan penting
dalam proses pemesinan. Bendalir pemotong menjejaskan produktiviti operasi
pemesinan, kehidupan alat, kualiti bahan kerja dan mencegah alat memotong dan mesin
daripada terlalu panas juga. Secara umum, cecair pemotongan yang berjaya mesti bukan
sahaja meningkatkan prestasi proses pemesinan, tetapi juga memenuhi beberapa
keperluan yang bukan toksik, tidak berbahaya kepada kesihatan bagi pengendali, tidak
bahaya kebakaran, bukan asap atau kabut dalam penggunaan dan mempunyai harga .
Salah satu kelemahan menggunakan konvensional (mineral) berasaskan minyak
memotong cecair adalah pelupusan sisa selepas digunakan. Minyak mineral telah juga
biodegredasi miskin itu mendorong potensi untuk pencemaran jangka panjang alam
sekitar. Dalam kajian ini, kajian literatur yang menyeluruh permohonan sayur-sayuran
berasaskan minyak memotong cecair dalam bahan pemesinan bahan kerja yang berbeza
dengan bahan-bahan alat yang berbeza telah dilaporkan. Pemboleh ubah biasa yang
biasanya disiasat memotong berkuat kuasa, memakai alat, kehidupan alat, kekasaran
permukaan dan morfologi cip.
Kajian ini dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian utama, bahagian pertama memberi
tumpuan kepada sifat isirung sawit dan minyak cottonseed dan pembentukan emulsi
minyak dalam air cecair pemotongan menggunakan dua minyak. Pemilihan memotong
tambahan cecair (pengemulsi, agen anticorrosive, antioksidan dan biocide) untuk
pembentukan emulsi minyak dalam air menggunakan isirong sawit dan minyak
cottonseed tidak berbahaya atau bermasalah kepada alam sekitar atau berbahaya kepada
pekerja. Pembentukan cecair pemotongan berdasarkan JAS 24 reka bentuk faktoran
penuh dan analisis statistik nilai tindak balas (pH) telah digunakan menggunakan versi 6
perisian DOE ®. Nilai pH 10,46 dan 10,98 diperolehi untuk minyak isirong sawit dan
vii
minyak cottonseed masing-masing, yang berada dalam standard yang diterima untuk
proses pemesinan cecair pemotongan.
Bahagian kedua dianggap kesan dua dirumuskan emulsi minyak dalam air memotong
cecair dalam beralih AISI 4340 keluli dengan alat karbida bersalut dan berbanding
dengan (mineral) konvensional cecair pemotongan berasaskan minyak. Kaedah Taguchi
dengan L27 (34) pelbagai ortogon untuk uji kaji telah diguna pakai. Kelajuan
pemotongan, kadar suapan dan kedalaman pemotongan dianggap untuk percubaan.
Dalam tambahan kepada parameter memotong, jenis memotong bendalir yang
digunakan juga dianggap sebagai salah satu parameter input kritikal manakala mereka
bentuk eksperimen. Kuasa memotong, kekasaran permukaan dan memakai alat
parameter output yang diperolehi daripada ujian yang dijalankan sebagai satu L27
pelbagai eksperimen dan seterusnya dianalisis. Minitab 14 perisian analisis statistik
yang digunakan secara meluas dalam aplikasi kejuruteraan telah digunakan dalam
analisis isyarat kepada hingar (S / N) nisbah (dB) dan ANOVA bagi kekasaran
permukaan, memotong kekerasan dan memakai alat. Analisis ANOVA menunjukkan
bahawa kelajuan pemotongan (64.46%) dan kadar suapan (32.19%) dengan ketara
mempengaruhi kekasaran permukaan. Cecair kedalaman pemotongan (33.15%) dan
memotong (51.12%) dengan ketara menjejaskan daya pemotongan dan semasa
memotong kelajuan (85.36%) dan kadar suapan (4.81%) dengan ketara menjejaskan
memakai alat. Kesan pemotongan cecair kepada jenis cip yang terbentuk sama
diambilkira. Ujian pengesahan yang digunakan untuk Taguchi keputusan dan persamaan
regresi menunjukkan keputusan yang boleh dipercayai.
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I will bless the Lord at all times; His praise shall continually be in my mouth
(Psalms 34:1)
I am grateful to God almighty who kept me throughout this period of my studies. Your
praise shall continually be in my mouth.
If I have seen further, it is by standing on ye shoulders of giant” Isaac Newton
(February 5th, 1676)
Prof Imtiaz Ahmed Choudhury is an academic giant on whose shoulders I stood within
this period of my search for knowledge so as to contribute my own quota to the field of
machining process. Professor Imtiaz took the supervision responsibility with patience
and was always willing to make contribution to every aspect of this research and above
all his feedbacks were timely. Though, very busy and meticulous, he is a wonderful
teacher, accessible supervisor and friendly. He has held my hands through the most
challenging moments of working on this research. He handled my challenges of
intercultural communication with “motherly” understanding. I am grateful to God for
putting me under his guide at this most critical stage of my search for knowledge. I am
indebted to my co-supervisor- Assoc. Prof Dr. Nukman Yusoff for the roles he played in
my search for knowledge. I am grateful to you sir.
I will like to thank my teachers who had contributed in one way or the other to my
academic career: Messrs A.A. Akure and D.O Aina were among the first teachers that
taught me how to count the numbers and pronounce letters in English language. Messrs
S.A Olorunyomi (Mathematics); George (Chemistry); Jacob (Physics) and Joseph
(Biology), these were men that inspired me to study science subjects at secondary
school level. Professor F.O Akinbode and Professor M.S Abolarin of Federal University
of Technology, Minna, Nigeria supervised my first and second degree respectively. I am
grateful to all members of Manufacturing Integration System research group of
ix
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya
for the many ways they have contributed to the completion of this study.
I am indeed grateful to the University of Malaya for funding this research from grant’s
number PV019/2011A. I equally want to appreciate the Federal Government of Nigeria
for supporting my studies with Education Trust Fund (ETF) grant and for Federal
University of Technology, Minna to have released me for this program. I wish to
appreciate all my friends who have kept in touch with me all these years, your calls,
emails and SMS were received at the moment when they were mostly needed. I
especially thank the leadership of Pantai Baptist Church, Petaling Jaya, especially the
International Student Ministry (ISM) and Cell Group headed by Mr Foo and Mr Prathab
respectively for making my stay in Malaysia a worthwhile. I am grateful to Full
Redemption Chapel, Wukari and Life Camp Christian Church Jebba North, both in
Nigeria for their prayers support throughout my stay away from home.
I will not forget in hurry the roles played by these colleagues and friends like Messrs
Ajayi Owolabi Badmus, Sunday Ukpata and Bello Abdulkadir and Dr. Benjamin
Ugheoke toward the success of this program. I say thank you all. I wish to thank Dr
(Mrs). Ruth Araga for securing the admission for this program at a time that I had
given up.
I wish to express my profound gratitude to my siblings and in-laws for their supports
throughout this program. I appreciate the different roles you all played in my life during
the course of this program. My sincere prayer is that God will reward you all. I like to
thank my parents for their contributions to my career, especially my mother, Late Mrs
Ajoke Lawal, I cannot forget in hurry the critical roles played by her. She defied all
odds and stood her ground to see that I was enrolled into primary school and not only
x
that, she bravely sacrificed all to keep me in the system. Thank you a million times
mama.
I am eternally grateful to my wife, Mrs. Comfort Modupe Lawal and children: Favour
Oyinnoyi, Grace Ahuoyiza, Joy Ohunene and Simpa Albert for their enormous
sacrifices to give me the peace of mind needed for doctoral studies and bearing with my
absence. Words alone cannot capture my appreciation and I say thank you and may God
almighty bless you all in Jesus name (amen).
xi
TABLE OF CONTENT
Declaration------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
Pengisytiharan-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
Abstract---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
Abstrak----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi
Acknowledgements------------------------------------------------------------------------------viii
Table of content-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------xi
List of Figures------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xvi
List of Tables-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xx
List of acronyms--------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxiii
CHAPTER 1---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1. Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.1 Background of study----------------------------------------------------------------1
1.2 Objectives ----------------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.3 Justification of study----------------------------------------------------------------8
1.4 Scope of study----------------------------------------------------------------------13
1.5 Structure of the thesis--------------------------------------------------------------14
CHAPTER 2-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
2. Literature review-----------------------------------------------------------------------15
2.1 Vegetable oil-based cutting fluid -----------------------------------------------15
xii
2.1.1 Formulation--------------------------------------------------------------------15
2.1.2 Composition-------------------------------------------------------------------17
2.1.3 Characterization---------------------------------------------------------------19
2.1.3.1 Sulfonate castor oil-based cutting fluid-------------------------------20
2.1.3.2 Crude soybean oil-based cutting fluid---------------------------------22
2.1.3.3 Raw and refined sunflower oil-based cutting fluids-----------------23
2.2 Applications of vegetable oil-based cutting fluid in machining processes-24
2.2.1 Turning process with different workpieces---------------------------------25
2.2.1.1 AISI 4340 steel------------------------------------------------------------25
2.2.1.2 AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel--------------------------------------26
2.2.2.3 AISI 1040 steel-----------------------------------------------------------27
2.2.2.4 Mild steel------------------------------------------------------------------29
2.2.2.5 Inconel 600 alloy---------------------------------------------------------30
2.2.2.6 AISI 9310 steel-----------------------------------------------------------32
2.2.2 Drilling process with different workpieces--------------------------------34
2.2.2.1 Titanium alloys------------------------------------------------------------34
2.2.2.2 AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel--------------------------------------35
2.2.2.3 AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel---------------------------------------37
2.2.3 Milling process with different workpieces---------------------------------39
xiii
2.2.3.1 AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel--------------------------------------39
2.2.3.2 AISI 420 stainless steel---------------------------------------------------41
2.2.4 Grinding process with different workpiece--------------------------------42
2.2.4.1 Mild steel (SAE 1020)-----------------------------------------------------42
2.2.4.2 Hardened bearing steel (100Cr6, 6HRC)-------------------------------43
2.2.5 Limitation of cutting fluid in machining------------------------------------45
CHAPTER 3-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------46
3. Research Methodology and Materials---------------------------------------------46
3.1 Experimental method for formulation of cutting fluid-------------------------46
3.1.1 Determination of selected properties of vegetable oils-------------------46
3.1.2 Oxidative and thermal stabilities of PKO and CSO----------------------46
3.1.3 Pour point of PKO and CSO-------------------------------------------------47
3.1.4 Materials for formulation of cutting fluid----------------------------------48
3.1.4.1 Vegetable and mineral oils--------------------------------------------------48
3.1.4.2 Water quality requirement for cutting fluid formulation---------------50
3.1.4.3 Additives----------------------------------------------------------------------51
3.1.5 Formulation of cutting fluids using design of experiment---------------53
3.1.5.1 Preliminary study-------------------------------------------------------------57
3.1.5.2 pH value------------------------------------------------------------------------57
xiv
3.1.5.3 Viscosity------------------------------------------------------------------------58
3.1.5.4 Corrosion level-----------------------------------------------------------------58
3.1.5.5 Stability-------------------------------------------------------------------------59
3.2 Materials -------------------------------------------------------------------------------59
3.2.1 Workpiece material -------------------------------------------------------------59
3.2.2 Cutting tool material-------------------------------------------------------------60
3.3 Experimental design and instrumentation-------------------------------------------60
3.3.1 Cutting force----------------------------------------------------------------------64
3.3.2 Surface roughness----------------------------------------------------------------65
3.3.3 Flank wear-------------------------------------------------------------------------67
3.3.4 Chip formation--------------------------------------------------------------------67
CHAPTER 4---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------69
4. Results and Discussion------------------------------------------------------------------69
4.1 Properties of vegetable oils------------------------------------------------------------69
4.2 Oxidative and thermal stabilities of PKO and CSO -------------------------------72
4.3 Pour point of PKO and CSO----------------------------------------------------------75
4.4 Formulation----------------------------------------------------------------------------78
4.4.1 Preliminary study result--------------------------------------------------------78
4.4.2 pH value and ANOVA analysis for cutting fluid---------------------------78
xv
4.4.3 Optimization process and confirmation test---------------------------------92
4.4.3.1 Viscosity------------------------------------------------------------------------93
4.4.3.2 Corrosion level-----------------------------------------------------------------93
4.4.3.3 Stability-------------------------------------------------------------------------94
4.4.3.4 Characteristics of cutting fluids----------------------------------------------94
4.5 Turning experiment--------------------------------------------------------------------95
4.5.1 Cutting force---------------------------------------------------------------------99
4.5.2 Surface roughness---------------------------------------------------------------108
4.5.3 Flank wear-----------------------------------------------------------------------116
4.5.4 Confirmation test----------------------------------------------------------------127
4.5.5 Chip formation------------------------------------------------------------------129
CHAPTER 5------------------------------------------------------------------------------------132
5 Conclusion and recommendations-------------------------------------------------------132
5.1 Conclusions-----------------------------------------------------------------------------132
5.2 Recommendation for future work---------------------------------------------------135
References---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------136
List of publication-----------------------------------------------------------------------------145
Appendices--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of typical vegetable oil-------------------------------------3
Figure 1.2 Characteristics of application of cutting fluids---------------------------------6
Figure 1.3 Classification of water –soluble fluids-------------------------------------------6
Figure 2.1: Implication of pH value on worker’s health and materials-------------------19
Figure 2.2: Biodegradation test of cutting fluid----------------------------------------------21
Figure 2.3: Corrosion level ---------------------------------------------------------------------22
Figure 2.4 Global warming potential (GWP)--------------------------------------------------44
Figure 3.1: Constituents of oil-in-water emulsion cutting fluid-----------------------------50
Figure 3.2: Mixture process----------------------------------------------------------------------55
Figure 3.3 Mixing with mechanical overhead stirrer-----------------------------------------57
Figure 3.4 pH value measurement--------------------------------------------------------------58
Figure 3.5 Experimental setup for turning process------------------------------------------64
Figure 3.6 Experimental setup for surface roughness----------------------------------------65
Figure 3.7 Microscope setup for flank wear measurement----------------------------------67
Figure 4.1 Gas chromatographic profile of palm kernel and cottonseed oil--------------71
Figure 4.2: TGA curves under oxygen and nitrogen environment for PKO--------------73
Figure 4.3: TGA curves under oxygen and nitrogen environment for CSO--------------74
Figure 4.4 TGA curves under oxygen and nitrogen environment for PKO and CSO---75
xvii
Figure 4.5 DSC curves for PKO and CSO with and without additives-------------------77
Figure 4.6 Normal distribution plot for PKO cutting fluid----------------------------------81
Figure 4.7 Residual plot used to check the errors for PKO cutting fluid -----------------82
Figure 4.8 Residual plot to check for independence for PKO cutting fluid---------------83
Figure 4.9 Scatter plot of predicted against actual for PKO cutting fluid-----------------84
Figure 4.10 Contour plot for PKO cutting fluid----------------------------------------------85
Figure 4.11 Interaction plot for PKO cutting fluid-------------------------------------------86
Figure 4.12: Normal distribution plot for CSO cutting fluid------------------------------89
Figure 4.13: Residual plot used to check the errors for CSO cutting fluid -------------89
Figure 4.14: Residual plot to check for independence for CSO cutting fluid------------90
Figure 4.15: Scatter plot of predicted against actual for CSO cutting fluid---------------91
Figure 4.16: Contour plot for PKO cutting fluid---------------------------------------------
Figure 4.17: Corrosion level test---------------------------------------------------------------94
Figure 4.18: Main effect plots of S/N ratio for cutting force------------------------------99
Figure 4.19: Contour plots for cutting force-------------------------------------------------101
Figure 4.20: 3D Surface graph for cutting force--------------------------------------------102
Figure 4.21: Normal probability plot for cutting force-------------------------------------102
Figure 4.22: Pareto chart for cutting force---------------------------------------------------103
Figure 4.23: Interaction plots for cutting force---------------------------------------------105
xviii
Figure 4.24: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 160 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.0 mm ----------------------------------------------------------107
Figure 4.25: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 160 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.75 mm---------------------------------------------------------107
Figure 4.26: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 250 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 3.0 mm-----------------------------------------------------------108
Figure 4.27: Main effect plots of S/N ratio for surface roughness------------------------109
Figure 4.28: Contour plots for surface roughness-------------------------------------------111
Figure 4.29: 3D Surface graph for surface roughness--------------------------------------111
Figure 4.30: Normal probability plot for surface roughness------------------------------112
Figure 4.31: Pareto chart for surface roughness---------------------------------------------113
Figure 4.32: Interaction plots for surface roughness---------------------------------------114
Figure 4.33: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 160 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.0 mm ----------------------------------------------------------115
Figure 4.34: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 200 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.75 mm-------------------------------------------------------- 115
Figure 4.35: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 250 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 3.0 mm----------------------------------------------------------116
Figure 4.36: Main effect plots of S/N ratio for flank wear---------------------------------117
Figure 4.37: Contour plots for flank wear----------------------------------------------------119
Figure 4.38: 3D Surface graph for flank wear-----------------------------------------------119
xix
Figure 4.39: Normal probability plot for flank wear----------------------------------------120
Figure 4.40: Pareto chart for flank wear------------------------------------------------------120
Figure 4.41: Interaction plots for flank wear-------------------------------------------------122
Figure 4.42: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 160 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.0 mm ----------------------------------------------------------123
Figure 4.43: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 200 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 1.75 mm---------------------------------------------------------124
Figure 4.44: Effect of cutting fluids at cutting speed of 250 m/min, feed rate of 0.18
mm/rev and depth of cut of 3.0 mm----------------------------------------------------------124
Figure 4.45: Flank wear at 50 × magnification---------------------------------------------125
Figure 4.46: Flank wear at 200× magnification --------------------------------------------126
Figure 4.47: Type of chip formation---------------------------------------------------------130
xx
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Merits and demerits of vegetable oils as lubricants-----------------------------5
Table 1.2: List of recent researches in the machining of AISI 4340 steel ---------------11
Table 2.1: Additives in vegetable oils--------------------------------------------------------18
Table 2.2: Characterization of new cutting fluids------------------------------------------21
Table 2.3: Emulsifiers properties-------------------------------------------------------------23
Table 2.4: Characterization of vegetable based cutting fluids----------------------------24
Table 2.5: Input parameter and their levels-------------------------------------------------27
Table 2.6: Experimental specifications------------------------------------------------------31
Table 2.7: Basic characteristics of cutting fluids------------------------------------------36
Table 2.8: Characteristics of vegetable based cutting fluids-----------------------------37
Table 2.9: Characteristics of vegetable based cutting fluids for milling process------39
Table 2.10: Machining inputs and their levels---------------------------------------------40
Table 2.11: Prices of coolants----------------------------------------------------------------45
Table 3.1 Oil samples for TG analysis------------------------------------------------------47
Table 3.2: Variables and levels employed in the factorial design-----------------------54
Table 3.3: 24 full factorial experimental design matrix-----------------------------------56
Table 3.4: Chemical composition of AISI 4340 steel-------------------------------------59
Table 3.5: Typical physical and thermal properties of AISI 4340 steel----------------59
xxi
Table 3.6: Process parameters and their levels--------------------------------------------61
Table 3.7: Experimentation layout using an L27 orthogonal array--------------------62
Table 3.8: MAHR Perthometer data sheet-------------------------------------------------66
Table 4.1: Fatty acid composition of palm kernel and cottonseed oils----------------70
Table 4.2: Selected physical properties of palm kernel and cottonseed oils----------72
Table 4.3: Results of pour point-------------------------------------------------------------76
Table 4.4: Results of stability and pH values----------------------------------------------78
Table 4.5: pH value of 24 full factorial with random run order indicated--------------79
Table 4.6: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the pH value model--------------------80
Table 4.7: Statistical value for PKO cutting fluid-----------------------------------------80
Table 4.8: pH value 24 full factorial with random run order indicated ----------------87
Table 4.9: Analysis of variance for the model---------------------------------------------87
Table 4.10: Statistical value for CSO cutting fluid----------------------------------------88
Table 4.11: Viscosity and pH value of formulated emulsion cutting fluids------------93
Table 4.12: Results for stability--------------------------------------------------------------94
Table 4.13: Characteristics of oil-in-water emulsion cutting fluids---------------------95
Table 4.14: Data from the experiment conducted------------------------------------------97
Table 4.15: S/N (dB) ratio values for responses-------------------------------------------98
Table 4.16: ANOVA analysis for cutting force-------------------------------------------101
xxii
Table 4.17: ANOVA analysis for surface roughness-----------------------------------110
Table 4.18: ANOVA analysis for flank wear--------------------------------------------118
Table 4.19: Optimal values for various output parameters----------------------------127
Table 4.20: Confirmation test percentage error ----------------------------------------128
Table A1: Chromatography data----------------------------------------------------------147
Table A2: Cutting force percentage reduction------------------------------------------148
Table A3 Surface roughness percentage reduction-------------------------------------149
Table A4: Flank wear percentage reduction---------------------------------------------150
xxiii
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AISI America institute of steel and iron
ANOVA Analysis of variance
DOE Design of experiment
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry
GC Gas chromatography
S/N ratio Signal-to-noise ratio
PKO Palm kernel oil
CSO Cottonseed oil
MO Mineral oil
TGA Thermo-gravimetric analysis
-