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THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY
A non- techn ica l rev iew
UNITEDN
ATIONS
ENVIRONM
ENTP
ROGRAM
M
E
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Copyright United Nations Environment Programme, 2006
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for
educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright
holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. U NEP would
appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a
source.
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THE HYDROG
A non- tech n ica l re
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Contents
Ac knowledgements
Introduction
The Hydrogen E conomy and Sustainable De ve lo
What is H ydrogen?
T he Environmental Implications of H ydrogen
A G lobal H ydrogen Energy System
Technical and C ost C hallenges
H ydrogen Production, D istribution and Storage
Fuel Cells for M obile and Stationary Uses
Carbon Capture and Storage
The Transition to the Hydrogen Economy
Investment in H ydrogen Infrastructure
G overnment Support
Long-Term Projections of H ydrogen Use
Hydrogen and the Developing World
Relevance of H ydrogen to D eveloping Economies
Implications for National Energy Policy-mak ing
Role of International and Non-Governmental O rganisati
Key Messages
Annex A: Ke y Players in Hydrogen Re se arc h
and Development
National and Regional Programmes
Private Industry
The Hydrogen Economy
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Acknowledgements
T his report was commissioned by the D ivision of Technology, I ndustry and
Economics of the Uni ted Nations Environment Programme. M ark Radka an
D aniel Puig managed the project, with scientifi c support from Jorge Rogat
Trevor M organ of M enecon Consulting was the principal author.
The report benefited from comments and suggestions from G ert Jan Kramer o
Shell H ydrogen, H ans Larsen of Ris National Laboratory ( D enmark) , Jianxin M a o
Tongji University ( China) , Stefan M etz of Linde AG , Wolfgang Scheunemann o
D okeo G mbH ( G ermany) , H anns-Joachim Neef of G ermany and T horsteinn
Sigfusson of I celand ( co-chairs of the Implementati on and Lia ison Committeeo
the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy) and Giorgio Simbolott
of the I nternational Energy Agency. Their help is gratefully acknowledged.
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Introduction
T here is a growing belief among poli cy-makers, environm
energy analysts and industry leaders that hydrogen is the f
will revolutioni se the way we produce and use energy. I n
reliance on finite fossil energy is clearly unsustainable, both
economi cally. Soaring prices of oi l in recent years have dr
energy-security risks of relying on oil and gas, and hav
perception that the world is starting to run out of cheap fue
to move to more secure and cleaner energy technologies
held to be the most promising of a number of such techno
deployed on a large scale in the foreseeable future. Repla
hydrogen in final energy uses could bring major environmen
as technical, environmental and cost challenges in th
produced, transported, stored and used are overcome.
UNEP is following developments in hydrogen-energy te
interest, as it holds out the prospect of providing the ba
energy future one in which the environmental effects of en
use are greatly reduced or eliminated. I ndeed, the hydroge
likely never become a reality unless it brings major environ
there are widespread misunderstandings about the role hy
the global energy system, how quick ly it could be introduce
large scale and its impact on the environment. U NEP believ
to keep countries, especially those in the developing world
true potential, costs and benefits of hydrogen, and
misconceptions.
In keeping with its mi ssion to encourage and facili ta
environmentally-friendly technologies, U NEP has decid
The Hydrogen Economy
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government support, and describes long-term projections of hydrogen use. T h
report then considers the relevance of hydrogen for developing economies and
what it could mean for national policy-making, and the role of international an
non-governmental organisations. A concluding section summarises the ke
messages contained in this report.
Annex A describes the activities of k ey players in hydrogen energy research and
development. Annex B provides references to selected publications on hydrogen
and the addresses of relevant websites for readers looking to fi nd out more abou
hydrogen developments and programmes.
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The Hydrogen Economy and Susta
Development
In terest in hydr ogen as a way of deli veri ng energy se
growi ng in recent year s in response to heighten in g c
envi ronmenta l impact of energy use and wor r ies ab
fossi l-fuel suppli es. Hydr ogen, as an ener gy car r ier, c
replace all forms of final energy in use today an d pr
ser vices to al l sectors of the economy. The fundamenhydrogen is i ts poten tial envi ronmenta l advantages
At the poin t of use, hydr ogen can be bur ned i n such
produ ce no harmfu l emission s. If hydr ogen is produ
emi ttin g any car bon d ioxi de or other clim ate-destab
gases, i t cou ld form the basis of a tr u ly susta inabl e e
hydrogen economy.
What is Hydrogen?
H ydrogen is the simplest, lightest and most abundant elem
making up 90% of all matter. I t is made up of just one elec
and is, therefore, the first element in the periodic table. I
state, hydrogen is odourless, tasteless, colourless and non-to
readily with oxygen, releasing considerable amounts of e
producing only water as exhaust:
2 H2 + 02 2 H20
When hydrogen burns in air, which is made up mostly of n
The Hydrogen Economy
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partial oxidation. A major shortcoming of the processing of hydrocarbons is th
resulting emissions of carbon dioxide and airborne pollutants. M ost othe
production processes in use or under development involve the electrolysis o
water by electricity. T his method produces no emissions, but is typically mor
costly compared to hydrocarbon reforming or oxidation because it require
more energy and because electricity is, in most cases, more expensive than foss
fuels. Today, the commercial production of hydrogen worldwide amounts to
about 40 mi llion tonnes, corresponding to about 1% of the worlds primar
energy needs. T his output is primari ly used as a chemi cal feedstock in th
petrochemical, food, electronics and metallurgical processing industries.
H ydrogen holds the potenti al to provide energy services to all sectors of th
economy: transportation, buildings and industry. I t can complement or replac
network -based electricity the other main energy carrier i n final energy uses
H ydrogen can provide storage opti ons for intermittent renewables-base
electricity technologies such as solar and wind. And, used as an input to a device
known as a fuel cell, it can be converted back to electrical energy in an efficien
way in stationary or mobile applications. For this reason, hydrogen-powered fue
cells could eventually replace conventi onal oi l-based fuels in cars and trucks
H ydrogen may also be an attractive technology for remote communities whic
cannot economically be supplied with electricity via a grid. Because hydrogen
can be produced from a variety of energy sources fossil, nuclear or renewable
i t can reduce dependence on imports and improve energy security.
Box 1: Energy Sources and Carriers
Primary sources of energy such as coal, oil and natural gas store various forms of k i
occur in a natural state. T hey can be burned directly in final uses to provide an enerbuildings, or they can be transformed into secondary energy sources for final consu
allows energy to be transported or delivered in more convenient or useable form. Ele
secondary source of energy. Hydrogen is also a secondary source, as it must be pro
source. It can be converted to energy (heat) either through combustion or through an
generate heat and electricity. Secondary sources are also known as energy carriers.
The Hydrogen Econo
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Road transportation is an important and growing source o
and climate-destabi lising greenhouse gases. T here is cl
harmful impact on human health of exposure to pollutants
trucks. As a result, local air quality has become a major pol
countries. Air pollution in many major cities and towns in t
has reached unprecedented proporti ons. M ost rich, ind
have made substantial progress in reducing pollution cause
through improvements in fuel economy, fuel quality an
emission-control equipment in vehicles. But rising road traf
part of the improvements in emissions performance.
Because of increasing pollution from road traffic, road veh
focus of efforts to develop fuel cells. Replacing internal
fuelled by gasoline or diesel with hydrogen-powered
principle, eliminate pollution from road vehicles. Fuel cells
provide electrical-energy services in industrial processes an
direct use of petroleum products, natural gas and coal.
H ydrogen could also contribute to reducing or elimi nating
dioxide and other greenhouse gases. For this to happ
manufacturing hydrogen would have to be carbon-free or
intensive than current energy systems based on fossil f
achieved in one of three ways: through electrolysis usin
solely from nuclear power or renewable energy sourc
reforming of fossil fuels combined with new carbon c
technologies; or through thermochemical or biological te
renewable biomass.
D espite the potential local and global environmental ben
hydrogen, there are a number of uncertainties about
consequences of a large-scale shift towards a hydrogen econ
mainly the potential effects of significant amounts of hydr
into the atmosphere. T he widespread use of hydrogen woul
inevitable, but the effects are very uncertain because scienti
understanding of the hydrogen cycle. Any build-up of hydr
in the atmosphere could have several effects, the most se
be increased water vapour concentrations in the uppe
The Hydrogen Economy
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and implement internationally agreed rules, regulations, codes and standard
covering the construction, maintenance and operation of hydrogen facilities and
equipment safely, along the entire fuel-supply chain. U niformity of safet
requirements and their strict enforcement will be essential to establishin
consumer confidence.
A Global Hydrogen Energy System
T he transition to a hydrogen-energy system would represent the ultimate step o
the path away from carbon-based fossil energy. T he worlds energy system ha
been becoming gradually less carbon-intensive as it has moved from coal to o
and then natural gas. T he technology exists today to produce, store, transport and
convert hydrogen to useable energy in end-use applications, such as fuel cells
Technologies to capture carbon dioxide and other gases released during th
process of producing hydrogen from fossil fuels and store them have also been
demonstrated. Almost every big car manufacturer plans to begin commercia
production of fuel-cell cars within a few years, and small fuel cells to supply powe
to remote communities are already comi ng onto the market. M ost of the major ocompanies have active hydrogen and carbon capture and storage programmes
We can imagine today what the hydrogen economy might look like (Box 3) .
M ajor technological and cost breakthroughs are needed before the hydroge
economy can become a reali ty. T he cost of supplying hydrogen energy usin
The Hydrogen Econo
Box 2: Hydrogen E xonerated as the C ause of the Hindenburg D
Televised images of the spectacular destruction of the Hindenburg airship affect peo
and their acceptance of the gas as a safe energy carrier. The Hindenburg burst into
reporters and newsreel cameras while landing in N ew Jersey, in the United States, o
of the hydrogen that fuelled the airship was blamed for the disaster, which effectively
1997 study by a retired National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) engi
that hydrogen played no part in starting the Hindenburg fire. According to the study,
the airship, which contained the same component found in rocket fuel, was the prim
Hindenburg dock ed, an electrical discharge ignited its skin, and a fire raced over the
37 people who died, 35 perished from jumping or falling to the ground. O nly two of
these were caused by the burning coating and on-board diesel. T he hydrogen burne
from the people on board.
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and at an acceptable cost. T he Earths resources of oil, nat
certainly large enough to meet our energy needs for man
Improved electric batteries in cars and trucks or improved em
of technologies in use today could prove to be the preferr
pollution problems. Renewable energy sources or nuclear p
be a more cost-effective solution to the threat of global war
I f hydrogen does emerge as a competitive energy carrier
existing systems overnight because of the slow pace at whic
stock that makes up the global energy system is replaced. deployment of carbon capture and storage technology
element of the hydrogen economy for as long as fossil fue
main primary source of energy will be a mammoth undert
to a hydrogen economy would, therefore, be gradual, po
decades. T he construction of enti rely new supply infrastr
The Hydrogen Economy
Box 3: A Vision of the Hydrogen Economy
What might a hydrogen economy look like? Jump forward in time perhaps 100 years, but pos
The world has made the transition to a hydrogen economy. A n efficient and competitive hydrog
storage and transport system has been built. Hydrogen has become widely accepted as a clea
sustainable form of energy. Emissions are a fraction of what they once were, even though the w
and economy are now much larger. C ities and towns are filled with highly efficient hydrogen-po
conveying people and goods, emitting only water vapour and driving along with only a gentle h
vehicles refuel at public stations where hydrogen supplies are received by pipeline from centrali
facilities. O thers fill their hydrogen tanks from home or at their workplace from either small-scale
reformers or renewable energy powered electrolysis plants, some using photovoltaics.
In this future world, home owners have the choice of buying electricity from the grid or supplyin
needs with a dedicated fuel cell that provides electricity and thermal energy for heating and coo
uses hydrogen produced by a small reformer, using natural gas supplied through the local pipe
network. Electricity is produced in centralised power plants, using gasified coal or natural gas. T
is captured and piped to a storage site or converted to useful and safe solid products. Some ofproduced is burnt in highly efficient gas turbines to provide electricity, and some is piped to cus
vehicles and distributed generation plants. R enewable energy sources also contribute to both p
production. Hydrogen is used to store the intermittent energy generated from wind turbines and
Source: Adapted from Commonwealth Governm
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Technical and Cost Challenges
Formidable techni cal and cost chall enges wi ll need to be over come for
hydrogen to be able to compete wi th, and eventual ly replace, exi sting
energy technologies. The biggest advances ar e needed i n
tr an spor tati on and storage of the fuel, as well as in fu el cell s in
vehicles. And technologies that capture the car bon d ioxide emi tted
when hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels and store it un der groun dneed to be adequately demonstr ated on a lar ge scal e. Lar ge cost
reduction s ar e needed especia ll y in the man ufactu re of fuel cells
for hydrogen to become competiti ve wi th exi sting fossil fuel- and
renewabl es-based technologies. But recent advances in technology an d
a sur ge in publi c and pr iva te spend in g on resear ch, development and
demonstrati on suggest tha t the requi site techni cal and cost
breakthroughs mi ght be achievable wi thin a genera tion .
Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Storage
A critical hurdle on the road to the hydrogen economy is the efficient and clean
production of hydrogen. As an energy carrier, hydrogen has to be manufacture
from a primary energy source. T here are many industrial methods currentl
available for the production of hydrogen, but all of them are expensive comparedwith the cost of supplying the same amount of energy with conventional form
of energy ( several times more expensive compared with fossil fuels) . T h
distribution and storage systems that would be needed to supply hydrogen on
large scale are also much more expensive because of the low volumetric energ
density of the fuel. Bri nging production, distribution and storage costs dow
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Natural gas is usually the cheapest feedstock for producin
reforming. Even so, producing hydrogen from natural gas
three times more than producing gasoline from crude oi l n
of capturing and storing the carbon dioxide produced in the
of countries are conducting research into how to improve th
reforming of gas and other fossil fuels, and how to lower pr
Par t i a l oxid a t i onof methane is also used to produce hy
involves reacting the methane with oxygen to produce h
monoxide, which is then reacted with water to produce
carbon dioxide. O verall conversion efficiency is generally
reforming, which is why the latter technique dominates co
today and is expected to continue to do so.
Gasi f ica t ion of coa lis the oldest technique for mak ing
used in some parts of the world. I t was used to produce the
to cities in Europe, Australia and elsewhere before natural g
T he coal is heated until it turns into a gaseous state, and
steam in the presence of a catalyst to produce a mixture
60% ) , carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxides of sulph
synthesis gas may then be steam-reformed to extract the
burned to generate electricity. Coal gasification for electrici
more thermally efficient than conventional coal-fired pow
polluting. Research into coal gasification is focused on handsulphur and nitrogen oxides major pollutants and carb
without combustion of the synthesis gas in the plant.
H ydrogen can also be produced from b iomass, such as cro
dung, using pyrolysis and gasification ( thermochemical)
processes produce a carbon-rich synthesis gas that ca
hydrogen in the same way as natural gas or coal-based
advantage of biomass over fossil fuels is that it producescarbon dioxide, since the carbon released into the atmosp
absorbed by the plants through photosynthesis. But w
remote locations where biomass supplies are ample and c
hydrogen production costs are generally much higher than
biological routes to producing hydrogen from biomass inv
The Hydrogen Economy
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solar and biomass, electrolysis would produce carbon-free hydrogen. But larg
reductions in the cost of renewables-based electricity and nuclear power are
needed to enable hydrogen produced by electrolysis to compete with
conventional sources of energy on a large scale.
T here is some scope for reducing the cost of producing hydrogen. In 2005, th
US Department of Energy set a new production-cost target of $23 per gallon o
gasoline equivalent ( in 2005 prices) by 2015, regardless of the way the hydroge
is produced. Achieving the target would require a halving of the current cost
Steam reformi ng of natural gas or some other fossil-fuel feedstock is likely to
remain the cheapest way of producing hydrogen for the foreseeable future
except where electricity is available at very low cost.
H owever hydrogen is produced, i ts widespread use will require large-scal
infrastructure to transport, distribute, store and dispense it as a fuel for vehicles o
for stationary uses. Because of its low volumetric energy density, hydrogen must bcompressed and stored as a gas in a pressurised container or chilled and stored i
a cryogenic liquid hydrogen tank for convenience. Both techniques have bee
demonstrated and are in commercial use today, but they use significant amount
of energy and the tanks are expensive to build and operate. T he potential fo
storing hydrogen safely and efficiently in a solid state is being investigated.
Transportation and distribution are faced with similar problems. Compressed
hydrogen can be transported by pipeline, but the energy-intensive nature of thitechnique means that i t is only economi c over short di stances. T here are som
small hydrogen-pipeline systems in operation today, mostly in the United State
Box 4: Ce ntralised versus Loca lised Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen can be produced in two ways: in large-scale centralised plants for bulk su
facilities using local energy inputs. T he choice of production has important implicatio
needs. C entralised production would benefit from economies of scale. T his would fa
technologies, including steam reforming and coal gasification. The main drawback is
infrastructure to transport and distribute hydrogen, possibly over large distances. It
existing gas pipelines to hydrogen, though compressors and valves might have to b
Alternatively, mixing in small volumes of hydrogen typically up to 15% by volume
the need for modifications to the gas distribution network, but separating the two ga
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and Europe, but none exceed 200 kilometres in length. O ve
is cheaper to transport hydrogen by road, rail or barge in
then vaporised at the point of use. H ow successful research
in bringing down the cost of transportation and storage me
the viabili ty of hydrogen as an energy carrier and whether ce
production prevails ( Box 4) .
Fuel Cells for Mobile and Stationary Uses
The fuel cell has a long history. I t was invented by an Englis
in 1839. T he term fuel cell was coined later in 1889 by Ludw
Langer, who attempted to build the first practical device us
coal gas. Fuel cells were used in the US and Soviet space prog
and 1970s. Although hydrogen can be burned in conventio
boilers, turbines and internal combustion engines, fuel cells
technology to exploi t hydrogen because of their high efficie
A fuel cell is a device that uses a hydrogen-rich fuel and
electrical energy by means of an electrochemical reaction
two electrodes an anode ( negative) and a cathode ( po
around an electrolyte. H ydrogen is fed to the anode and ox
T he electrolyte causes the proton and electron in each
separate and take different paths to the cathode. T he elect
external circuit, creating an electrical charge. The protothrough the electrolyte to the cathode, where it reunites w
reacts with the oxygen to produce water and heat ( Figure
Figure 1: Fuel Cell C onfiguration
The Hydrogen Economy
hydrogen fuel excess
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Because there is no combustion, fuel cells give off no emissions other than wate
vapour for as long as the hydrogen is pure. Fuel cells are quiet and reliable as
there are no moving parts, and can be small. T hese attributes make fuel cells
highly promising technology, especially for automoti ve vehicles. T hey can also b
used in stationary applications, to provide electricity or heat for bui ldings.
A number of prototype fuel-cell cars, buses and trucks have been or are bein
demonstrated in various places around the world: the most recent models worwell and prove popular with end users. M ost use the proton exchange o
polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM ) technology. PEM fuel cells operate a
relatively low temperatures of around 80 C, which allows a rapid start-up tim
and causes less wear on system components. T hey have a higher power-to
weight ratio than other types of fuel cell. H owever, they require a noble meta
catalyst, which adds to the cost. O ther technologies under development includ
the solid oxide fuel cell ( SO FC) , which uses a solid, non-porous cerami
compound as the electrolyte, and operates at high temperatures; and thealkaline fuel cell, which uses a potassium hydroxide solution as the electrolyt
together wi th non-precious metals as the catalysts at the anode and cathode
operating at low to medium temperatures.
Several leading car manufacturers are working on demonstration fuel-cell cars
some of which can travel up to about 500 k ilometres before they need refuelling
In June 2005, the American H onda M otor Company became the first automotiv
manufacturer to lease a fuel-cell vehicle to an individual customerD aimlerChrysler has a fleet of around 100 small fuel-cell vehicles in operation i
several countries, and aims to begin commercial production in 2012. BM W plan
a production run of its new hydrogen-powered car in the hundreds by 2010, with
sales aimed at fleet operators and individuals in Europe and the United States
T he hydrogen fuels both an internal combustion engine for motive power and
separate fuel cell to supply electrical power. Ford, G eneral M otors and Toyot
also have major fuel cell development programmes. M ost of the models currentl
being developed are fuelled directly with hydrogen, without on-board reformi nof gasoline or methanol. T he latter approach was originally the focus of fuel-ce
vehicle development as car manufacturers believed that it would be easier to
make use of the existing fuel-distribution infrastructure. Technical and
environmental problems have led most of them to abandon on-board reforming
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production cost of a saloon car ( sedan) fitted wi th a fuel-c
to be as much as $1 mi llion, though car makers and fuel-c
reluctant to reveal the true cost for commercial reasons.
closer to $2 million. At present, the most competitive fuel
times more per kW of engine power than a standard gas
combustion engine, though fuel efficiency is twice as high.
Technical challenges also need to be addressed. T here is a durabili ty and dependability of fuel cells. C urrently, fuel cel
that operate at high temperatures are prone to break
relatively short operating lives. M ore important, there is
practical system for on board storage of hydrogen. T his is
challenge facing developers of fuel-cell vehicles the conse
very low energy density at atmospheric temperature and
enough fuel to travel 400 ki lometres, hydrogen would need
extremely high pressures to fi t into a standard-size car fuel possible to compress the gas to 700 bar. But even at that p
to be 4.6 times larger than a normal gasoline tank to contain
as far as with gasoli ne. M ore research is needed to find affo
are strong enough to wi thstand the pressure and resist the i
yet light enough to carry in a normal car. Li quid storage fo
practical problems, because large amounts of energy are n
hydrogen gas and maintain i t at a temperature of mi nus 2
storage method currently being investigated is to store themetal hydrides alloys created through chemical process
hydrogen could be released as needed. But such a syste
vehicle fuel efficiency.
T here have been major advances in fuel-cell technology ov
so, and this gives hope that fuel cells may one day be a
conventional vehicle technology on performance and co
require yet more research and development. Bring
The Hydrogen Economy
Box 5: C ompeting Options in the Transport Sec tor
Hydrogen as a transport fuel is just one of several options for enhancing energy security and re
C O 2 and noxious gases In practice hydrogen might exist alongside other fuels creating a syst
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commercial production will undoubtedly lower unit costs. I n fact, car maker
are confi dent of achieving large cost reductions in just a few years. Toyota aim
to cut the cost of fuel-cell cars to $50,000 by 2015. G eneral M otors aims to hav
a car in full commercial production by 2010 with a fuel cell costing no mor
than $5000. T he US Department of Energys Fuel Cell Program has a goal o
lowering the cost of stationary fuel cells by a factor of ten to around $400 pe
kW or less. T his would be close to the current cost of a combined-cycle gas
turbine power plant.
Carbon Capture and Storage
T he prospects for the hydrogen economy becoming a reali ty in the foreseeabl
future hi nge on advances in carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, an
its integration into hydrogen production based on fossil fuels. T his is a necessar
but not a sufficient, condition. Success in deploying CC S would also pave the wa
for environmentally acceptable production of electricity using fossil fuelshydrogen would still have to compete against electricity in final energy uses
including transport.
T here are three distinct steps involved in CCS associated with hydroge
production:
Capturing CO 2 from the flue-gas streams emitted during the productio
process ( pre-combustion capture) .
Transporting the captured CO 2 by pipeline or in tankers.
Storing CO 2 underground in deep saline aquifers, depleted oil and ga
reservoirs or unmineable coal seams.
CO 2 capture and transportation has been carried out for decades, albeit generall
on a small scale and not with the purpose of ultimately stori ng it. T here is a neeto improve these technologies for them to be widely deployed on a large scale in
association with hydrogen production, and to lower the cost. At present, mos
capture research and development is focused on post-combustion capture from
burning fossil fuels in power plants. M uch more work also needs to be done o
carbon storage to demonstrate its viabili ty and reduce the cost ( Box 6) .
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The Hydrogen Economy
D eep saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas reservoirs and un
are the most promising options for underground CO 2 stor
saline aquifers the single largest potential storage opti
enough to store decades-worth of global CO 2 emission
storing the gas at the bottom of oceans, but the prospects a
of the unk nown environmental effects. Transforming CO 2 in
it underground is still at a conceptual stage. All three storagdemonstrated on a large scale. A particular concern is whet
back into the atmosphere.
T he future cost of CCS will depend on which technologie
are applied, how far costs fall as a result of research and deve
uptake, and fuel prices. Capturing CO 2 from plants which c
and hydrogen might be more economical than stand-alone
production with CO 2 capture. Total CCS costs can be brok etransportation and storage:
Current estimates for large-scale capture systems are o
per tonne of CO 2 ( IEA, 2004b) . Costs are expected to f
technology is developed and deployed on a large scale
Box 6: Current Carbon Capture and Storage Demonstration Projects
A number of C C S demonstration projects have been launched in recent years. In most capture
technologies are applied at power plants. Various small-scale pilot plants based on new capture
operation around the world. O nly one power plant demonstration project on a megatonne-scal
announced: the FutureGen project in the US . This is a coal-fired advanced power plant for cog
electricity and hydrogen. Its construction is planned to start in 2007. O ther demonstration proje
C anada, Europe, and Australia.
There are about a hundred ongoing and planned geologic storage projects. T he two largest are
C anada. The first is at the offshore Sleipner oil and gas field, where C O 2 is stored in deep saline
1 million tonnes of the gas has been stored each year since 1996. N o leakage has so far been
second involves the use of C O 2 to enhance oil recovery and its subsequent storage undergroun
oilfield in C anada. A bout 2 million tonnes per year have been stored since 2001. The results of
suggest that the gas can be stored permanently without leakage or other major problems. P ilot
that CO 2-enhanced coalbed methane and enhanced gas recovery may also be viable storage m
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At present, the total cost of CCS typically ranges from $50 to $100 per tonne o
CO 2. T his is equivalent to about 1530 US cents per gallon of gasoli ne, $204
per barrel of crude oil or 24 US cents per kWh roughly equal to the curren
cost of gas-fired power generation. By comparison, the average price of a perm
to emit one tonne of CO 2 under the European Emission Trading Scheme wa
around $28 in September 2005. CCS costs could drop significantly in future
perhaps by half within the next 25 years depending on funding for research an
development and the success of demonstration projects. I n thi s case, C CS woulbecome competitive in Europe, even without any increase in carbon values.
CCS will not ensure a sustainable energy future, as fossil fuel resources are finite
But, if integrated into the production of hydrogen and/or electricity, it coul
provide the basis for a more sustainable energy system over a transitional period
lasting at least several decades. T he planets fossil-fuel resources are far from
being depleted. Proven reserves of oil are equal to 40 years of curren
production; natural gas reserves are equal to 67 years, and coal reserves, 16years ( BP, 2005) . Exploration and improved production technologies tha
enhance recovery rates will undoubtedly increase these reserves. I n the very lon
term, as fossil resources are eventually depleted, mank ind wi ll have no choic
but to turn to renewable energy technologies if they have not becom
competitive with fossil fuels associated with CCS before then.
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The Transition to the Hydrogen Ec
The tra nsiti on to a hydrogen economy would requi r
dolla rs of investment in new in fra str uctu re to produ
store an d deli ver hydrogen to end u ser s, as well as to
fuel cells. The need to in stal l car bon captu re and sto
add to the cost. Conti nu ing gover nment suppor t for r
development, an d strong incenti ves to ki ck-star t in veessenti al . The tr an si ti on to the hydr ogen-ener gy syste
several decades, becau se of the slow tu rnover of the
capi tal that either makes or uses ener gy and the shee
capacity that would need to be bui lt.
Investment in Hydrogen Infrastructure
T he introduction of hydrogen on a large scale woul
transformation of the global energy-supply system. A v
produce, transport, store and deliver hydrogen, as well as
cells, would need to be built. And consumers would need t
fuel-cell vehicles and related equipment. T he installation o
the carbon emitted in the production process and store it
add to the cost, though this would be needed regardless ofcarri er for as long as fossil fuels remain the primary sou
hydrogen and related infrastructure would be needed not ju
energy facili ties, but also to meet rising global energy needs
challenge and an opportuni ty to introduce new hydrogen-e
The Hydrogen Economy
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enough centralised hydrogen plants to supply the fuel needed to run all the cars
trucks and buses in use in the world today would require a staggering $8 tri llion
in investment not including the cost of carbon capture. T his sum is equal to
almost half the total cumulative investment in the entire energy sector that th
International Energy Agency estimates will be needed worldwide over the nex
quarter of a century ( IEA, 2005a).
Cost is the principal barrier to investment in hydrogen. No private firm will invesin a commercial hydrogen venture unless it believes that it will be able to
compete against existing fuels and turn a profit. H ydrogen is sti ll far from bein
competitive in most applications, but that could change with technologica
breakthroughs and government incentives or mandates. I f that is the case, th
opportunities for profitable development of hydrogen facilities would expan
over time. Initially, i nvestment may be limited to a few remote locations, wher
the costs of fuel distribution and electricity infrastructure are relatively high
where public concern about environmental sustainability is especially strong andwhere governments provide large incentives. As the market develops mas
production of supply equipment and fuel cells will bring economies of scale
advance the learning process and further lower costs.
But cost is not the only barrier to investment. As with any radically new
technology, hydrogen could face the classic chicken-and-egg conundrum: th
lack of a market in the first place deters investment, preventing the market from
developing. Put another way, why develop hydrogen cars when there is ndistribution network, and why develop a distribution network if there are no
hydrogen cars? H ydrogen use will not take off unti l critical market mass i
achieved. T he market needs to be large enough to demonstrate to potentia
users and fuel providers that hydrogen is a safe, reliable and cost-effectiv
alternative to conventional fuels. T he more fuel-cell vehicles there are on th
road, the more confidence other vehicle owners will have to switch fuels. And
the hydrogen refuelling network would have to be developed quickly: a lack o
refuelling stations would be a major impediment to persuading vehicle ownerto switch to hydrogen, even if there were a financial incentive to do so.
The sheer scale of investment in a hydrogen project, together with inheren
technical and financial risks, could also discourage private companies. G overnmen
intervention in the form of financial incentives and regulatory measures that ti lt th
The Tra
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also conti nue to play a role in meeting energy needs in statio
and in buildings, and possibly in the transport sector as
compressed natural gas) . I t might also prove economic to
natural gas for distribution through the existing gas-pipeline
Figure 2: Linka ges betw een Hydroge n a nd the Res t of th
The Hydrogen Economy
Wind, nuclear andsolar power
Biomass
Gasification
Steam reforming
Hydrogen production
Hydrogen storage
Buildings/industryVehicles Thermal powergeneration
Pri
Ele
Hy
Electrolysis
Coal
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Government Support
For the transition to the hydrogen economy to begin, there will most likely be a
need for decisive government action in two areas:
Research, development and demonstration of hydrogen technologies. T hi
effort could be vital to achieving the necessary technological breakthroughs
Incentives to encourage investment in hydrogen infrastructure and switchinto the fuel once technologies are deemed to be economic.
Because hydrogen is a long way from becoming competitive, the focus o
government action today in the field of hydrogen is in research and developmen
( R& D ) . Research i nto the use of hydrogen for energy purposes goes back man
decades, but the scale of publi c ( and private) funding for hydrogen and fuel ce
R& D and demonstration activi ties has increased enormously in the last few years
T his reflects significant technological advances that make it more li kely that thfuel will become a viable energy solution in the not too distant future, as well a
a growing urgency on the part of policy-makers to seek out sustainable energ
solutions that address environmental and energy-securi ty concerns. M an
governments now expect the transition to the hydrogen economy to begin
within the next two decades and are look ing to speed up the process, ofte
through collaborative international and joint private-public sector programmes
T he International Energy Agency ( I EA) estimates that current public hydrogeR& D spending worldwide amounts to about $1 billion per year ( IEA, 2004a)
T his spending might seem impressive, but is actually modest compared to th
sums governments are spending on other forms of energy R& D . I n membe
countries of the O rganization for Economic Cooperation and D evelopmen
( O ECD ) , hydrogen accounts for only about 15% of total energy R& D budgets
R& D spending on hydrogen is thought to exceed that on fossil fuels an
renewables, but is sti ll much lower than that on nuclear energy. I n 2001 th
latest year for which comprehensive data is available O ECD countri es spen$3.8 billion on nuclear energy, $700 mi llion on fossil fuels and $760 mi llion o
renewables ( I EA, 2004d) . Total O ECD R& D spending in that year was $8.
billi on. O fficial data may underestimate the importance of hydrogen R& D , a
some activities related to hydrogen are covered by fossil-fuel, nuclear energ
and end-use technology programmes.
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production-related projects will account for 1.3 billion and
1.5 billion. O ther industrialised countries account for almo
some developing economies notably China, Brazil and I n
their own programmes. D etails of national and collab
programmes, as well as private-sector activities, can be foun
Source: Internation
D espite recent increases in public spending on hydrogen R
by that of private companies and organisations, including en
makers, chemical producers, power uti li ties and fuel-cell
total amount of private hydrogen-related R& D spending is
but it i s thought to total about $3-4 billi on per year. T his g
how optimi stic the private sector i s about the prospects for
much of this spending would probably not occurcommi tments from the public sector. M any private rese
partnership with publicly-funded programmes. A continued
commi tment to R& D will remain a key determinant of the
efforts to bring hydrogen energy into commercial use.
Hydrog en Foss il fuels Renew a bles Nuclea r O
C anada* 24 47 30 47
Japan 270 n.a. n.a. n.a.
G ermany* 34 14 74 154
France** 45 33 27 359
Italy 34 15 61 107
United K ingdom 3 5 20 n.a.
United States* 97 416 243 371 1
* Federal spend ing only. ** 2002 data.
Table 1: Public Research and Development Spending on Hydrogen an
Tec hnologies in the Largest OEC D C ountries, 2003 ($ m illion)
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taxes to encourage the development of the natural gas transmission and
distribution network.
G overnments will also need to work with fuel provi ders, equipmen
manufacturers, car makers and standard-setti ng bodi es to establi sh appropri at
standards and codes for designing, building, testing and ultimately marketing
hydrogen-related equipment. T hey will be crucial to ensuring safety and
lowering costs. I nternational harmonisation of standards would encouragtrade and avoid parallel development of incompatible equipment an
technology lock-in with di fferent standards, further dri ving down costs
G overnments will also be called upon to assist in promoti ng public awarenes
about the benefits of hydrogen, as well as the training and education o
industry personnel.
Long-Term Projections of Hydrogen UseI t is extremely hard to predict how soon the transition to hydrogen as an energ
carrier might begin and how long it might take, as it depends critically on
technology breakthroughs in a number of different areas. I t is impossible t
know when these might occur and the extent to whi ch they will lower costs an
enhance the competi tiveness of hydrogen vis--vis conventional forms of energy
As a result, all long-term projections of hydrogen use are based on assumption
about supply costs.
H owever successful current hydrogen R& D efforts are in bringing down cost
and improving performance, the transition process to a hydrogen econom
would undoubtedly be gradual, probably lasting several decades. T he planning
construction, operation and decommissioning of energy infrastructure stretch
over very long timeframes. C ars and trucks typically last a decade or two, bu
power stations, oil refineries and pipelines are built to last for decades. Retiring
them early would be very expensive. And the widespread deployment of carbon
capture and storage technology will be a mammoth undertaking. M obilising athe investment needed to completely overhaul the entire existing energy system
within a decade or two would simply not be practical, even if we were prepared
to pay the enormous cost of phasing out existing energy facili ties early. So, eve
if competitive hydrogen technologies were to emerge within the next 20 years,
would probably take most of the rest of this century to complete the transitio
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Hy
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Hydrogen and the Developing World
Developi ng econom ies have at least as mu ch to gai n from a move
towa rds the hydr ogen economy as industr ial i sed ones, since they
genera lly suffer more from ur ban poll uti on and their econom ies tend
to be mor e ener gy in tensive. Yet the tran si tion wi ll probably star t la ter
in most developi ng nati ons, as they ar e less able to afford to
par tici pate in R&D and the finan cial in centi ves needed to ki ck-star t
the process. The r ich wor ld mu st be ready to suppor t developi ng
econom ies in mak ing this happen, as an d when i t becomes a vi able
ener gy solu tion , to the benefit of the overal l pu sh for hydrogen.
Inter na tiona l and non -gover nmental organi sations have an
impor tan t role to play in assistin g coun tri es in creatin g a mar ket-
based policy envi ronment w ithi n which hydrogen and other emerging
ener gy technologies ar e able to compete agai nst existing, conventi ona
energy systems.
Relevance of Hydrogen to Developing Economies
Although most current hydrogen R& D is taking place in the industrialise
countries, developing economies have as much if not more to gain frommoving to the hydrogen economy. Their towns and cities generally suffer far mor
from the pollution caused by road traffic, coal-fired power stations and industria
boi lers. M any developing economies are more economi cally vulnerable t
fluctuations in international energy prices, as their economies are more energy
intensive. T he poorest countries lacking appreciable resources of fossil fuels ma
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in the coming decades. M ost of that increase will take the fo
and coal unless there are breakthroughs in technolog
energy policy that allow renewables and/or nuclear energy t
role than currently appears likely. T he earlier these countrie
to hydrogen, the less their energy use would be tied to foss
the quicker they could achieve energy sustainability.
T he initial focus of efforts to establish hydrogen syseconomies will most likely be on transport and possibly o
remote, rural settings where the cost of connecting
electricity grid is highest. T he local environmental gains
conventional automotive fuels to hydrogen would generally
developing than in industrialised countries, where automo
vehicle-emission control technology is already much mo
polluti on is consequently less of a problem. In most citie
world, road traffic is the primary source of air pollution reached catastrophic proportions in many cases. D emonstra
cell vehicles and refuelling systems are already underw
developing world. T he joint G lobal Environment Facili
D evelopment Programme Fuel Cell Bus Programme, fo
commercial demonstrations in Beij ing, C airo, M exico City, N
and Shanghai. China has also set up its own fuel-cell bus de
with the aim of putti ng 200 buses into commercial operation
O lympic G ames in Beijing.
T he local availabil ity of biomass, solar energy and wi
provide the basis for the production of hydrogen in tho
fossil fuel resources are scarce. T his would preclude the
store carbon dioxide. Biomass, in particular, could be a
some countries. T he modular nature of fuel cells make
option for supplying power to remote, off-grid communit
provide a means of storing electrical energy generated fror wi nd energy.
Implications for National Energy Policy-making
What should the governments of developing economies
The earl ier developin g
economies begin the
tra nsition to hydrogen,
the less their ener gy use
woul d be ti ed to fossil -
energy systems.
Hy
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As hydrogen technologies approach the stage at which they are ready to b
commercialised, policy-makers will need to pay more attention to the
implications for the transition to hydrogen of immediate decisions abou
investment in large-scale conventional energy infrastructure. As developin
economies grow richer, they will build thousands of power plants, as well as new
refineries and pipeline systems. T hese facili ties will be intended to last man
decades. Replacing them before the end of their economic lifetimes would be
very expensive. T here is a risk that a decision taken today to pursue conventional energy project will hinder the introduction of hydroge
technologies at some point in the future, by anchoring the energy system to
fossil fuels. T here is inevitably a trade-off between the benefits of providin
modern energy services today and developing a sustainable energy system in the
longer term. T here is an urgent need to make available those services to the tw
billion people in the developing world that do not yet have them. Waiting fo
affordable clean energy solutions to emerge is neither a practical nor a morally
acceptable option.
T he best way to ensure that energy investment is undertaken in the mos
economically efficient manner i s to establish a market-based policy framework
T he aim should be to establish competi tive markets and effective mechanisms fo
regulating natural monopolies, and to make sure that energy is priced correctly
In properly regulated, well-functioning markets, competition ensures that the fu
costs of supplying energy are reflected in the price the consumer pays. I n practice
this is often far from the case. I n many developing economies, energy is heavilsubsidised, leading to excessive consumption and waste, and exacerbating th
harmful effects of energy use on the environment. Subsidies can also place
heavy burden on government finances and undermine private and publi
investment in the energy sector, impeding the expansion of distribution network
and the development of more environmentally benign energy technologies.
G etting energy prices right does not stop there. T he environmental and healt
costs of harmful emissions from burning fossil fuels are rarely reflected in thprices of those fuels, especially coal, in most countries developing and
industrialised alik e. T here is no perfect way to do this, but one sensible approac
is for governments to tax the consumption of each form of energy according to
how much carbon dioxide and/or noxious gases it emits. At a minimum, the
dirti est fuels should be taxed more. I n that way, the external environmental cost
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in rural communi ties that lack access to modern en
development plans could be modified to support the
link ages between hydrogen, renewable technologies and
supply electricity and other forms of commercial energy t
served by existing distribution network s. T his could be ju
barriers to the deployment of hydrogen and i ts long-term s
and economic benefits.
Role of International and Non-Governmental Organis
T he rich world will need to help poorer countries to switc
T he G 8 leaders attending the G leneagles summi t in July 200
it is in their interests to work together with developing eco
to achieve substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emiss
private investment in more sustainable energy techn
hydrogen and their transfer to those countries. T he rich to help pay for the poor to switch to low-carbon energy. T h
as charity, but rather as part of a cost-effective strategy to
global warming.
International and non-governmental organisations includ
important role to play in thi s process. I t i s not for any organ
winners among the various energy technologies that could
years. T he aim should rather be to assist developi ng econenergy-policy landscape that promotes efficient, compet
facilitating the rapid introduction of hydrogen energy as a
competitiveness. T his will requi re energy to be priced and
the full account of the environmental costs and b
technologies. T he scale of the challenge should not be
energy-market and pricing reforms that are necessary to m
thorny issues in many developing economies. D evelopm
lending institutions and export-credit agencies will need to providing technical assistance to help developing economie
well as to supply the capital needed to bring hydrogen pro
UNEP will play its part in encouraging and facilitating the a
and other emerging technologies where they are economic
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Key Messages
H ydrogen holds out the promise of a truly sustainable global energy future. As
clean energy carrier that can be produced from any pri mary energy source
hydrogen used in highly efficient fuel cells could prove to be the answer to ou
growing concerns about energy securi ty, urban pollution and climate change
T his prize surely warrants the attention and resources currently being di rected a
hydrogen even if the prospects for widespread commercialisation of hydrogen
in the foreseeable future are uncertain.
Considerably more research and development will be needed to overcome th
formidable technical and cost hurdles that currently stand in the way o
hydrogen. Large reductions in unit costs, notably in bulk transportation an
storage, and in fuel cells, are needed for hydrogen to become competitive with
existing energy systems. Finding a practical solution to the problem of storing
hydrogen on board vehicles is a critical challenge. G overnments, energ
companies, car makers and equipment manufacturers, who between them arinvesting bill ions of dollars in hydrogen-supply and fuel cell R& D an
demonstration, are confident that these challenges can be overcome
Unexpected technological breakthroughs stemmi ng from advances in basi
sciences, which could have a revolutionary impact on hydrogen supply and fue
cells, cannot be ruled out.
I f technological and cost breakthroughs were to be achieved in the near future, th
transition to a hydrogen energy system would sti ll take several decades. The slowturnover of the existing stock of capital that either makes or uses energy and th
sheer amount of capacity that would need to be built to replace existing system
and to meet rising demand will mean that fossil fuels will most likely remain th
backbone of the global energy system unti l at least the middle of the century.
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that process may start later in most developing economies,
to afford to participate in hydrogen R& D . T hey could spee
introduction of hydrogen by establishing a market-based p
ensures that energy is priced and taxed efficiently. In any
must be ready to support developing economies in
sustainable energy paths. I nternational and non-governm
have an important role to play in assisting countries
environment within which hydrogen and other emerging can penetrate the market, as and when it becomes a viabl
Annex A: Key Players in Hyd
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Annex A: Key Players in Hydrogen Researchand Development
National and Regional Programmes
M ost O ECD countries and a growing number of developing economies have activ
hydrogen and fuel-cell R& D programmes, wi th aggregate public fundin
worldwide now running at about $1 billion per year. Fuel cells account for abou
half of this spending. M ost of the rest is devoted to production, transportation an
storage, with small amounts going to end-use technologies not based on fuel cells
such as gas turbines and internal combustion engines. Total spending haincreased sharply in the last few years. The biggest increases in funding in dolla
terms have occurred in the United States and the European Union. Almost all othe
countries that undertake hydrogen R& D have also stepped up their activities.
Some countries have integrated R& D programmes that cover all elements o
hydrogen supply and end uses. O thers focus on specific aspects. In each case
the balance of funding between different research areas reflects a mixture o
national policy priorities, indigenous resource endowment, and researchtraditi ons and strengths. For example, the CO AL21 programme in Australia,
country with very large coal reserves, covers hydrogen production from coa
integrated with CCS. G ermany places heavy emphasis on fuel cells for vehicles
reflecting the countrys traditional strength in vehicle manufacturing.
United States
T he US government carries out most of its hydrogen and fuel-cell R& D under thH ydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program, run by th
D epartment of Energy. T he governments strategy is to concentrate funding on
high-risk applied research on technologies in the early stages of development
and leverage private-sector funding through partnerships. T he administration
sharply increased funding in 2003, with the launch of a five-year $1.2 billion
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the federal government will continue with phase 2 and lau
will involve building large-scale infrastructure for manufac
distributing hydrogen. Subsidies are expected to remain in
momentum. T he final phase 4, the realisation of the hy
expected to begin in 2025.
Figure 3: Trans ition to the Hydroge n Eco nomy Envisa ge dHydroge n Programme
Source: www.hy
Japan
Japan was the fi rst country to undertake a large-scale hyd
programme a ten-year, 18 billion ( $165 mi llion) effort th
2002. T he New Hydrogen Project ( NEP) , which started up
commercialisation. Funding has been raised each year sinc
RD&D
Transition tothe marketplace
Expansion of marketsand infrastructure
Realisation of Hyd
Technology developmentR esearch to meet customer
requirements and establish
business case leads to a
commercialisation decision
Initial market penetrationPortable power and stationary
transport systems begin
commercialisation; infrastructure
investment begins with governmental
policies
Infrastructure investmentH 2 power and transport systems
commercially available; infrastructure
business case realised
Fully developed market andinfrastructure phaseH 2 power and transport systems
commercially available in all regions;
national infrastructurePHASEIV
PH
ASEIII
PHASEII
PHASEI
Strong government R&D role Strong industry comm
Commercialisation decision
Annex A: Key Players in Hyd
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Source: International Energy Agency (2004a
European Union
M ost EU funding for hydrogen-related activiti es is provided under the Renewabl
Energy Sixth Framework Programme, which runs from 2002 to 2006. Som
100 mi llion ( $120 milli on) of EU funds, matched by an equivalent amount o
private investment, has been awarded to R& D and demonstration proj ects fohydrogen and fuel cells after the first call for proposals in 2003. Further calls fo
R& D proposals, worth a public and private investment of 300 million ( of whic
EU funding will amount to 150 mi llion) , are planned. Total public and privat
funding is expected to reach 2.8 billion over the ten years to 2011. O f thi
amount, production-related projects will account for 1.3 billion and end-us
projects in communities, 1.5 billion. Some other EU programmes also includ
some activities related to hydrogen.
All the hydrogen projects that are being funded by the European U nion ar
intended to support the large-scale Qui ck Star tinitiative, which aims to attrac
private investment in infrastructure projects in partnership with national publi
institutions and the European Investment Bank. T he ultimate goal is t
accelerate the commercialisation of hydrogen-related technologies during th
coming decades. Production-related projects aim to advance cutting-edg
research to build a large-scale demonstration plant that is able to produce
hydrogen and electricity on an industrial scale and to separate and store safel
the CO 2 generated in the process. End-use projects are intended to explore th
economic and technical feasibility of managing hydrogen-energy communities
known as the hydrogen village. T his will involve establishing centralised an
decentralised hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure
autonomous and grid-connected hydrogen/power systems, a substantia
2010 2020
Fuel-cell vehicles on the road (number) 50, 000 5, 000, 000
Hydrogen refuelling stations (number) - 4000
Stationary fuel-cell co-generation systems (M W) 2200 10,000
Table 2: Hydrogen C omme rcialisation Targets in J apan
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its large fossil-fuel reserves. O ne focus of R& D is the pro
through the gasification of coal under the C O AL21 progr
Canadas hydrogen R& D focuses on production from re
fuel cells. N otable successes include the development of
cell, which led to the worlds first demonstration of a fuel-
the H ydrogenics alkaline water electrolyser. Public fundi
at over C$30 million ( US$25 mi llion) per year and cumuthe early 1980s exceeds C$200 mi lli on.
I n France, hydrogen activities cover PEM and so
production technologies based on coal-gasification w
high-temperature solar and nuclear energy, and small bi
reformi ng; and storage devices. Total annual governmen
EU contributions, i s estimated at about 40 million ( $48
Germanyis a world leader in hydrogen and fuel cell de
have become the main focus of public and private R& D
reflecting in large part the countrys traditional strength
T here are a number of demonstration projects unde
hydrogen-refuelling stations at M unich Airport to suppo
fleet of hydrogen-powered BM Ws, and the Clean Energy
in Berlin, which involves the installation of a refuelling
fuel-cell cars. I n fact, nearly three-quarters of th
demonstrated in Europe are in G ermany. In total, th
industry employs an estimated 3000 people. Total
hydrogen-related activities is estimated at 34 million ( $
In Italy, public funding has averaged about 30 million p
of the decade, wi th about 60% going to hydrogen produ
fuel cells. Several demonstration projects are unde
achievement is the construction of a plant producing
electrolysis integrated with photovoltaics. Another
Project, aims to demonstrate urban hydrogen infrastruc
the Lombardy region.
T he government of Koreaonly started funding hydro
Annex A: Key Players in Hyd
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commercial operation in time for the 2008 O lympi c G ames. T he first hydrogen
powered buses have already begun operation in the city under the UND P/G E
demonstration project. T he Shanghai government also plans to introduce 100
fuel-cell vehicles by 2010.
Indiahas budgeted 2.5 billion rupees ( $58 million) to fund hydrogen and fue
cell projects in universities and government-run research laboratories over th
three years to 2007. A planned pilot project involves blending small amounts ohydrogen into diesel fuel for use in about 50 buses in New Delhi. N ationally
there are plans to introduce by the end of the decade 1000 hydrogen-powere
vehicles, of whi ch 800 will be three-wheelers, and 200 buses. C ar makers ar
expected to contribute at least 5 billi on rupees ( $116 mi lli on) to th
development and demonstration of fuel-cell vehicles over the next five years.
Russiahas a long history of hydrogen production and R& D . A national hydroge
development programme, financed by the federal budget and private investorsis under discussion, aimed at developing a market for hydrogen-powered
vehicles. H ydrogen-related activities were stepped up i n 2003 with an agreemen
between the Russian Academy of Science and the Nori lsk Nikel Company on
fuel cell development programme. Total joint funding will be $120 million, o
which $30 million was budgeted in 2005.
Brazilhas devised a Hydrogen Roadmap, which aims to commercialise fuel cell
for transport and off-grid energy systems. T he focus of Brazilian hydrogen R& D
is on production from water electrolysis; reforming of natural gas and reforming
or gasification of ethanol and other biofuels; storage technologies, includin
metal hydrides; and fuel cells.
Private Industry
Pri vate-sector spending on R& D and demonstration of hydrogen, fuel cells an
related technologies is thought to be considerably larger than public budgets
Precise budgets are not available. T he International Energy Agency estimates tha
private-sector spending currently amounts to between $3 billion and $4 billion
per year up to four times the amount being spent by public bodies. T he mai
players are oi l and gas companies, car manufacturers, electricity and gas uti li tie
and power-plant construction companies. A growing number of firms tha
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integrated with CCS. T he Department of Energy is nego
agreement with a consortium led by the coal-fired electric
the coal-mi ning industry. T he consortium wi ll be respon
construction and operation of the plant, and for the monit
and verification of carbon dioxide capture at the plant
expected to contribute approximately $250 million towards
project, which is estimated at $950 million ( in year-2004 do
T he Cali fornia Fuel Cell Partnership is another example of a
public initiative, involving car manufacturers, energy c
developers and government agencies. I t aims to develop a
cell vehicles under real day-to-day driving conditions
development of refuelling infrastructure.
International Cooperation
G overnment and private R& D efforts are complemen
multilateral international collaborative initiatives, all of w
in 2003:
T he International Partnership for the Hydrogen Econom
to serve as a mechanism for international collaboratio
hydrogen and fuel cell R& D and commercialisation. I t
advancing policies, and developing common technical co
accelerate the cost-effective transition to a hydroge
educates and informs stakeholders and the general pub
and challenges involved in, establishing the hydrog
members include 12 O ECD countries, the European C
non-O ECD countries: Brazil, China, I ndia and Russia.
T he H ydrogen and Fuel C ell Technology Platform, set
Commi ssion, brings together all EU-funded public/pr
being undertaken withi n the Commi ssions Framework
to develop awareness of market opportunities for fue
technologies, to elaborate energy scenarios, and to
between stakeholders withi n and outside the European
Annex B:
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Annex B: References & Information Sources
Reports/Books
BP ( 2005) , Stat i sti cal Review of Wor ld Energy, BP, London.
Commonwealth G overnment of Australia ( 2003), Nation al Hydrogen Study,
Canberra.
Energy Information Administration ( 2005) , Intern ati onal Ener gy Outlook, US
D epartment of Energy, Washington, D .C .
European Commission ( 2003) , Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell s: A Vision of
our Futur e, D GT REN, Brussels.
H offman, P. ( 2001) , T omor row's Energy: Hydr ogen, Fuel Cell s, an d the
Prospects for a Cleaner Plan et, M IT Press, M assachusetts.
International Energy Agency ( IEA) ( 2004a) , Hydrogen a nd Fuel Cells: Reviews
of Nationa l R&D Programmes, I EA/O ECD , Paris.
( 2004b) , Prospects for Car bon Captu re and Storage, I EA/O ECD , Paris.
( 2005a) , Wor ld Energy Outl ook 2005, I EA/O ECD , Paris.
( 2005b) , Energy Poli cies of IEA Coun tr ies, I EA/O ECD , Paris.
( 2005c) , Prospects for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, I EA/O ECD , Paris.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC) ( 2005) , Specia l Repor t on
Car bon Di oxide Captur e and Storage: Summar y for Poli cymakers andTechni cal Summa r y, I PCC , G eneva.
Larsen H ., Feidenhansl R. and Petersen L. ( 2004) , Ris Ener gy Repor t 3:
Hydrogen and i ts Competitor s, Ris National Laboratory, Roskilde.
National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering (2004) , The
Hydr ogen Economy: Opportu ni ties, Costs, Bar r ier s and R&D Needs, National
Academies Press, Washington, D .C .
Rifkin, J. ( 2002) , The Hydrogen Economy: The Creati on of the Wor ld -WideEnergy Web an d the Redi str ibu tion of Power on Ear th, J.P. Tarcher Publishers,
Los Angeles.
Websites
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About the UNEP Division of TeIndustry an
The UN EP Division of Technology, Industry and Ecgovernments, local authorities and decision-maker
industry to develop and implement policies and pr
sustainable development.
The Division works to promote:
> sustainable consumption and production,
> the efficient use of renewable energy,
> adequate management of chemicals,> the integration of environmental costs in develop
The Office of the Director, located in Paris, coord
through:
> The International Environmental Technology Centre -
which implements integrated waste, water and disaster manag
focusing in particular on Asia.> Production and Consumption (P aris), which promotes sus
and production patterns as a contribution to human developm
markets.
> Chemicals (G eneva), which catalyzes global actions to bring
management of chemicals and the improvement of chemical s
> Energy (P aris), which fosters energy and transport policies for
development and encourages investment in renewable energy> OzonAction (P aris), which supports the phase-out of ozone d
in developing countries and countries with economies in transi
implementation of the M ontreal Protocol.
> Economics and Trade (G eneva), which helps countries to in
Hydroge n holds out the promise of a truly
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For more information, contact:
UNEP DTIE
Energy Branch
39-43 Q uai Andr C itron
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
Tel. : +33 1 44 37 14 50
Fax.: +33 1 44 37 14 74
E-mail: unep.tie@ unep.fr
www.unep.fr/energy/
DTI-0762-PA
Hydroge n holds out the promise of a truly
susta inab le g lobal energy future. As a clean
energy carrier that ca n be produced from
any primary energy s ource, hydrogen used
in highly efficient fuel cells could prove to
be the answer to our growing concerns
about energy security, urban pollution and
climate c hang e. This prize surely wa rrant s
the a ttention a nd resources currently be ing
directed at hydrogen even if the
prospects for widespread
commercialisation of hydrogen in the
foreseeable future are uncertain.