Download - Ecology [b growth curves]
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ECOLOGY
Part 2
Population Ecology
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Overview:A) THE BIOSPHERE B) POPULATION ECOLOGYC) COMMUNITY ECOLOGYD) ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGYE) THE CARBON & NITROGEN CYCLESF) ECOLOGICAL TECHNIQUESG) SIMPSON’S RECIPROCAL INDEXH) LOCAL ECOLOGYI) BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
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Ecology is the study of organisms in relation to their environment
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Ecosystem:
a complex, self-sustaining
natural system of which living
organisms are a part, together
with the nonliving
components
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Biotic factors include the living component of the
ecosystem; producers, consumers and decomposers
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Edaphic factors – Soil Characteristics
texture pH drainage
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Habitat is a specific locality of a place each with an
adapted community of organisms e.g. a rocky shore, a freshwater pool
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within each habitat there are populations of individuals which collectively form a community
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Question: End-of-Year JUNE, 2011Use your knowledge to discuss the biological significance of the following:
Edaphic and climatic factors play a role in ecosystems.
(5 marks)
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Edaphic and climatic factors are chemical or physical abiotic environmental factors which influence the distribution of organisms. Edaphic factors are factors pertaining to the soil e.g. pH, particle size, humidity. Climatic factors include temperature, rainfall, light intensity and wind. The combination of both edaphic and climatic factors determines the environmental conditions of an ecosystem and the type of organisms that can be found. e.g. low rainfall, high light intensity, low humidity in soil can support plants having xerophytic adaptations. Long periods of low temperatures and low light conditions induce plants to enter a period of dormancy and animals to hibernate or migrate. This results in great seasonal changes in the ecosystem.
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Community: a group of interacting populations occupying
a given area
Population: a group of individuals of
the same species, all occupying a particular area at the same time
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Ecological Species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set
of resources, called a niche in the environment
Biological Species a group of closely related organisms which are
capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring
Define a ‘SPECIES’
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POPULATION GROWTH
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Population size is the number of individual organisms
present at a given time Numbers can increase, decrease, cycle or remain
the same
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Population Density: is the number of individuals within a
population per unit area
High densities: make it easier to find mates, but increase
competition, and vulnerability to predation
Low densities: make it harder to find mates, but individuals
enjoy plentiful resources and space
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FOUR factors determine Population Growth:
POPULATIONPOPULATION
Births/Natality
Deaths
Immigration
Emigration
increases
decreases
(births + immigrants) - (deaths + emigrants)
Population change =
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Ignoring immigration and emigration, population growth is primarily affected by birth and death rates.
BIRTH DEATHS
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Recruitment: occurs when juvenile organisms survive to
be added to a population, usually a stage whereby the organisms are settled and able to be detected by an observer
is the proportion of offspring that attains sexual maturity in the population
[syllabus definition]
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The result of a balance between two major opposing factors:
Biotic potential:factors tending to
increase population
Environmental resistance:
factors tending to decrease population
What determines the ultimate size of any population (omit migration)?
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A stable population in nature is the result of the interaction between the biotic potential and environmental resistance.
Increasingresistance
Biotic PotentialReproductive rateAbility to migrate (animals) or disperse (seeds)Ability to invade new habitatsAbility to cope with adverse conditions
Environmental ResistanceLack of food or nutrientsLack of waterLack of suitable habitatAdverse weather conditionsPredatorsDiseaseParasitesCompetitors
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Biotic Potential: The maximum rate at which the population
could increase under ideal conditions
Orca whale: low biotic potentialgestation is 13 to 16 months
Salmon: high biotic potential
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Factors that influence the Biotic potential:1. The age at which the average individual first reproduces
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Factors that influence the Biotic potential:2. The average frequency with which reproduction occurs3. The average number of offspring produced each time
Offspring per mating: 1Age of 1st mating: 6.5 yearsGestation: 15 months
Offspring per mating: about 14Age of 1st mating: 8 monthsGestation: 114 days
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Factors that influence the Biotic potential:
4. The reproductive life span of the average organism
5. The average death rate under ideal conditions
Hamster: Offspring per mating – up to 18Age of 1st mating: 21 daysGestation: 21 days
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Organisms have reproductive potential beyond that required for replacement of their numbers e.g.
Female insects lay thousands of eggs
and frogs, are not much less!!
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The growth rate (r) of a population:
growth rate = birth rate – death rate
How fast the population grows
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A population can grow exponentially in an environment with: bounteous resources no competition
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Environmental resistance includes limits set by the: living
non living environment(e.g. food, space, competition, predation, parasitism)
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Environmental resistance can: increase the death rate
Dead fish due to drought.
Fewer offspring produced if
food is lacking.
decrease the birth rate
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TWO basic forms of growth curves:
S-shaped (sigmoid) J-shaped
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J-shaped Growth Curve
Acclimatisation
Exponential growth
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Acclimatisation:an organism needs time to adapt to new conditions as
it is subjected to unusual environmental conditions
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J-shaped growth curve:
Exponential growth:Population doubles at each generation
Unrestricted growth
2 4 8 16 321
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Which organisms show J-shaped type of growth?
SMALL ones: Bacteria, yeast BUT also large ones [next slide]
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The J-shaped curve of exponential growth characterizes some rebounding populations– e.g. the elephant population in Kruger National Park, South
Africa, grew exponentially after hunting was banned
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Characteristics of species showing J-shaped growth:
Live in populations that are highly variable Have many offspring Reproduce early
Water flea (Daphnia)Mosquitoes
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Theoretical S-shaped growth curve
Acclimatisation
Exponential growth
Logistic growth
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Logistic growth Occurs when a population’s growth slows or
stops following a period of exponential growth
Why does this happen?
Lack of resources, lack of space
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Theoretical S-shaped growth curve
Point of maximum
growth
Zero growth
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The carrying capacity (k):the maximum density the environment can support
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Population Oscillations
The population grows exponentially at first, then fluctuates around the carrying capacity.
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Characteristics of species showing S-shaped growth:
Live in populations that are at or near equilibrium conditions for long periods
Compete for limited resources
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Exponentialgrowth
(biotic potential)
Equilibrium
(Environmental resistance)
Carrying capacity
The growth is driven by biotic potential but levels off owing to environmental resistance.
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Population at equilibrium
Population growth with no restraints
J-shaped
S-shaped
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Which type of growth curve applies to the World Population?
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World Population Growth Through History
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Why is it that the world population cannot continue to grow exponentially?
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Resources become limiting
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Place the following on the graph:Biotic potential; S-curve; J-curve; carrying capacity;
environmental resistance
A
B
C
E
D
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Place the following on the graph:
A
BC
E
D
Biotic potential; S-curve; J-curve; carrying capacity; environmental resistance
A: J-curve
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Place the following on the graph:
A
BC
E
D
B: Biotic potential
Biotic potential; S-curve; J-curve; carrying capacity; environmental resistance
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Place the following on the graph:
A
BC
E
D
Biotic potential; S-curve; J-curve; carrying capacity; environmental resistance
C: environmental resistance
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Place the following on the graph:
A
BC
E
D
D: carrying capacity
Biotic potential; S-curve; J-curve; carrying capacity; environmental resistance
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Place the following on the graph:
A
BC
E
D
Biotic potential; S-curve; J-curve; carrying capacity; environmental resistance
E: S-curve
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Question:Any habitat may be said to have a carrying capacity and this is defined as the maximum population of a given species that can be sustained there. The graph below shows changes in the numbers of wild sheep on a large island during the 100 years following their introduction to the island.
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a) From the graph, estimate the carrying capacity of this island for wild sheep. (1)
1.5 million sheep
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b) Suggest two factors that may determine the carrying capacity of this island for wild sheep (2)1. Space available2. Amount of food present
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c) Comment on the pattern of population change after carrying capacity had been reached. (3)Fluctuates around the carrying capacity. Population increases above carrying capacity if environmental resistance is not harsh and vice versa.
d) Suggest 3 factors that may have influenced the length of time taken for the sheep population to reach carrying capacity. (3)1. Number of female sheep originally present.2. Length of gestation period.3. Number of offspring born per female at each pregnancy.
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Make sure you know the following:At which point is the population growth rate:
1. accelerating?2. highest?3. lowest?4. starting to
slow down?
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Make sure you know the following:At which point is the population growth rate:
1. accelerating?2. highest?3. lowest?4. starting to
slow down?
ba
c
d
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Factors That Limit Population Growth
Availability of matter Energy resources
can limit the number of organisms in a population
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Factors Regulating Populations:1. Density-independent factors: affect the same percentage of individuals
regardless of population size
2. Density-dependent factors: affect a greater percentage of individuals in
a population as the number of individuals increases
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Examples of Density-Independent Factors:
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Density-Independent factors:Natural disastersNatural disasters
Seasonal Cycles Seasonal Cycles [Monsoon][Monsoon]
FIRESFIRES
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Density-Independent factors:DeforestationDeforestation
Hurricanes Hurricanes
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Density-Independent factors:Human Human ActivityActivity
Polluted River [Indonesia]
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Density-Independent factors: Cold weather
An iguana lies dead after falling out of a tree in Davie, Florida. [Feb, 2010]
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Density-Independent factors:
The number of organisms affected depends upon the:
1. severity 2. time of occurrence.
1. severity 2. time of occurrence.
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How do species respond to such factors?How do species respond to such factors?
Density-independent factors:
They show a characteristic crash in population size.
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Salmon die at end of breeding season.
Cause of the ‘bust’ may be:
Insecticide kills insects.
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Examples of Density-Dependent Factors:
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Density-Dependent Factors:Predation
Competition
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Density-Dependent Factors:Disease
Rabbits around a waterhole at the myxomatosis trial enclosure on Wardang Island in 1938. (Australia)
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Density-Dependent Factors:Parasitism
"brood parasitism", which is practiced by some birds. These birds lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, tricking the nest owner into caring for parasite’s young.
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Density-Dependent Factors:Crowding
[walrus]
Stress
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Population growth is:Density-dependent:
[S-shaped][S-shaped]Density-independent:
[J-shaped]
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Why is population growth said to be ‘density-dependent’?
Because for a given set of resources, the growth rate depends on the numbers present in
the population
Can populations that do not show boom-and-bust cycles grow exponentially?
YESWhen?
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Exponential growth can occur temporarily under special circumstances such as:
elimination of population-controlling factors, such as predators or parasites
increasing the food supply
introduction of foreign or exotic / alien species
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Alien populations grow exponentially. Why?
Cane Toads have experienced a massive population explosion in Australia due the lack of
competition.
Individuals invade a new habitat where:1. conditions are favourable 2. competition or predation is scarce
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SEP 2013 Paper 2Use your knowledge of biology to explain the following statement. (5 marks)
Invasive alien species are a significant threat to biodiversity.
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SEP 2013 Paper 2
Invasive alien species show a J-shaped type of growth curve. Exponential growth leads to rapid increase in population size. Such species have a high biotic potential enabling them to multiply and spread quickly. As alien species use resources at a fast rate, environmental resistance sets in for other species. Space and food become limiting for other species that cannot compete so well as the alien ones. Thus the size of the fundamental niche for such species is reduced leading to a reduction in the carrying capacity of the local populations.
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Population StrategiesOpportunist
species(r-selected
species)
Equilibrium species(k-selected
species)
Body size small largeLife span small largeAge at first reproduction
early late
Number of offspring
many few
Parental care little muchFactors limiting population growth
density-independent
density-dependent
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Population Strategies
Opportunist Species
(r-selected species)
Equilibrium species(k-selected
species)
Type of environment
highly variable & unpredictable
stable and consistent
Type of organism
opportunists e.g. pests
not so, e.g. trees, man
Dispersal widely & in large numbers
slowly
Defensive strategies
relatively lacking good
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Factors Affecting Population Size some factors operate to regulate population
size within certain limits factors act:
intraspecificWithin a Species:
interspecificBetween Species:
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Competition Type is:
interspecificinterspecific
intraspecificintraspecific
Semibalanus
Chthamalus
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Why is intraspecific competition more intense than an interspecific one? as the needs of the members of the same species
for water, nutrients, shelter, breeding sites and other resources are almost identical
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Two regulatory mechanisms which affect birth rate:
territorial behaviour (territoriality) the physical effects of overcrowding
Adult male musk deer scent gland is used to make musk oil
Urine can be used to mark territory.
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What is ‘Territorial Behaviour’?
Grey reef shark
aggressive behaviour to defend an area
Grey reef shark warns intruders by twisting its body, raising its
snout, and dropping its pectoral fins. It finally attacks with
slashing bites that are not part of its normal feeding method. It
can even drive off the 16-foot tiger shark, which can kill a grey reef shark and then swallow it
whole.
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Territorial Behaviour occurs in a: wide range of animals, including: certain fish reptiles Birds mammals social insects
fiddler crabs
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An animal needs a territory to: to forage, mate, raise the young
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What happens to the size of a territory as population grows?
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What happens to the size of a territory as population grows?
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What happens to those without a territory? Often do not reproduce
Are also easy prey
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Question: MAY, 2007Use your knowledge of biology to explain the evolutionary significance of the following:Territoriality in animals. (5 marks)
An example of intraspecific interaction that limits population size.E.g. birds defend a territory to provide them with a nest and food with minimum expenditure of energy.New members are excluded – die or leave area.It selects in favour of the fittest members
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Two regulatory mechanisms which affect birth rate:
territorial behaviour (territoriality) the physical effects of overcrowding
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Overcrowding of small mammals e.g.
mice rats voles Vole
causessocial stress
Social stress results in a number of factors that reduce population size
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Social stress reduces population size1. a decrease in the size of the reproductive
organs2. reduced reproductive rate
Rabbit embryo
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Social stress reduces population size3. slower growth4. reduced resistance to disease5. reduced parental care6. the young abandon the nest at an early stage,
with consequent reduction in chances for survival
7. cannibalism of young
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Interspecific Interactions that affect
Population Size
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Predator & Prey Relationships a predator is an animal which preys upon
another and feeds on its prey
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one organism which consumes another so could include: herbivores parasites
However, the term can also be used for:
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Predator & Prey Populations
are out of phase
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Predator-Prey Cycles
Time
Number of individuals
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Negative Feedback
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Population CyclesSome bird, mammals and insect populations fluctuate with regularity (for example, lemmings show a 4-year cycle, snowshoe hares show a ten-year cycle).
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Parasitoids: are usually insects, laying eggs on hosts
which are completely consumed by developing larvae
parasitoid wasp species
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Parasitoid wasp pupae emerge from caterpillar
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Parasite-host relationships out-of-phase cycles as for predator-prey
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Interspecific Competition
Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon by which an organism produces chemicals that influence the
growth, survival, and reproduction of other organisms.
Bare zones
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Predation is an important evolutionary force natural selection favors: more effective predators more evasive prey
selective pressures imposed on one another often leads to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations
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Arms races : have been recorded in some snails over time:
Snails become more heavily armored prey
Their predators, crabs, develop more massive claws with greater crushing power
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Predator & Prey Co-evolve: Co-evolution is the mutual evolution of
predator and prey
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Question: [SEP, 2004]Comment on the biological significance of the following observation:Removal of predators may reduce diversity of prey organisms. (2)Predators create a selection pressure, favouring certain phenotypes instead of others. Removal of this pressure, no longer drives populations to diversify.
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Essay TitleReview the ways in which populations are controlled in nature.
[DEC, 1983]
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Question: End-of-Year SEP, 2011Use your knowledge of biology to describe the significance
of each of the following observations. (5 marks each)
a. Most biological populations tend to show sigmoid growth. b. Populations of predators and prey tend to fluctuate in similar patterns.c. The number of individuals in a population imposes limits on the size of a population.d. The size of a population may be limited by abiotic factors.
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END OF SECTIONEND OF SECTION