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Earth from Space
Geography 250
Unit1,2 Introduction and Brief History
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Earth Rise Dec 24th 1968 (while orbiting the moon)
"the most influential environmental photograph ever taken”
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Course Aims
• Understand what we can learn about earth from data obtained from instruments in air or space
• To explore remotely sensed data such that you can select products that aid you in solving problems within the GIS environment
• Understand images that you see in the news
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Earth from a Distance
• More difficult for the flat earth society!
• Earth as being visually conveyed– Uniqueness (so far!)– Water/Earth– Dynamic surfaces– Remote view as providing information to many
people including geographers
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Remote Sensing
• Remote: from a distance
• In contrast to: In-situ - on site and in contact
• Sensing: some type of detection - data are obtained and stored
• Remote sensing “ the science, technology and art of obtaining information about objects from a distance”
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Remote sensing capabilities
• Access to otherwise inaccessible areas– Antarctic, volcanoes, war zones, deep sea, disaster
areas, eg Katrina, (flooding shown here)
• View at a different scale– Patterns emerge not seen from the ground eg.
archaeological sites and hemispheric meteorological data from satellites
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Remote sensing capabilities(Cont)
• Information from wavelengths other than visible
• We see a very narrow range of wavelengths
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Information from other wavelengths
Wavelengths both outside of and within visible are assigned different colors such that the image can be readily interpreted
This image shows sea surface temperature from AVHRR
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Other wavelengths
A wildfire in Yellowstone shown in visible light (left) and thermal IR imaging (right)
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Remote sensing capabilities (Cont)• Cost effective for large areas• Aids in visualization
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Remote sensing capabilities (Cont)
• Analysis over time• Air photos are
commonly used for map updates
• Images show sea surface height relative to an average sea surface height
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Geography
• Geo/graphy = Earth/writing or Earth/description• Study of the distribution of physical and human
phenomena, their interactions and the reasons for their location.
• A study of where things are and why.• Hence remotely sensed data ‘fits’ into this area
of study as does GIS
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Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
• Automated overlay/combination of types of data.
• Technology used to answer questions such as:– Where is the best routing for a new power line,
place for a new store, controlled forest fire burns, conservation area, emergency management
• Software package such as ARCINFO• Geographic data:
• Remotely Sensed data and analysis of these data• Maps• Surveys eg census data• Point measurements (at known locations using GPS)
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GIS
http://www.wiley.com/college/strahler/0471480533/animations/ch03_animations/animation4.html
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Very early remote sensing
Battle in 1297
Drawings were made from hill-tops, trees, ship masts etc
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Early remote sensing
• 1859 French Photographer and Balloonist Gaspard Felix Tournachon, also known as Nadar
Photo from a balloon anchored in Boston, made in 1860
(first photograph was in 1820s but cameras only became practical in the 1860s)
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Photography from Kites• Composite photo of part of San Francisco
following the 1906 earthquake • Made from a camera on a kite
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The Bavarian Pigeon Corps 1903Small light weight cameras were attached to the birds and a timer was set to take pictures ever 30 seconds as it flew. (Birds had been used for some time for messages)
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Graflex camera used in WWI‘There were several aircraft used for aerial reconnaissance throughout the war. First made of wood and then metal, the aircraft was the focus of intense development. At the same time camera systems and techniques for measuring and identifying features on the ground were being developed. These interpretation and measurement techniques, and the men and women who practiced them during war time, continued after the war and applied them to other areas such as forestry and agriculture.’
WWI 1913 - 1918
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Air photos played a major role in the war starting in 1915
Role of interpreters: Detectives
Use of clues: Convergence of information (Data fusion)Repeat photographs
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Non-military applications
• Photogrammetry evolved: technology involved in making accurate measurements of distances and heights from maps
• Uses: Topographic maps, forest inventory (amount and type of trees), geologic mapping, agricultural statistics (who was growing what)
• Canada as mounting a comprehensive air photo campaign
• 1935 American Society of Photogrammetry formed (now also remote sensing) importance of this???
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World War II (start 1939)
• Germans started out in the lead with the recognition of the importance of remote sensing.
• Had images of key sites in other countries• Also very good maps in the Baedeker guides and used
them in the invasion of Norway and Britain, term “Baedeker raids”
• 'We shall go out and bomb every building in Britain marked with three stars in the Baedeker Guide.' - Baron Gustav Braun von Sturm, 24 April 1942
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World War II RAF air photo interpretation• ‘A group of British and American air photo interpreters work at the large
Medmenham interpretation center located near London, England. Air photo interpretation developed into a top priority program by 1943. Air photos were used to confirm or deny reports from spies in Europe
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WWII developments
• New films – color infrared, able to tell vegetation from cloth painted green
• Radar- new wavelength, ‘see’ in the dark and in fog
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Post-WWII
• 1950 – 1970• Continuing world tension, hence development• Many qualified photo interpreters with ideas of
the usefulness of technology• Color infrared declassified• Also multispectral imagery• Thermal Infrared• Side looking airborne radar
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Color infrared AKA Near Infrared• Reflected energy at wavelengths a little
longer than what we can see (0.7 – 1.5 micrometers)Photography captures the green, red, and near-infrared energy, which is displayed in a false-color form
Color-infrared images are particularly useful for analysis of vegetation cover.
Active vegetation appears bright red and pink in color-infrared photographs. Other materials--bare soil, pavement, water--are depicted in green and blue colors. Study example: www.emporia.edu/nasa/epscor/ft_leav/epscor.htm
http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=8829
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Thermal Infrared
Thermal infrared (thermal IR) is emitted energy, range 5.6micrometre to 1.0 cm
The waste heat from electrical generating stations is transferred to cooling water obtained from local water bodies such as a river, lake, or ocean.
The water is subsequently returned to the water body with a temperature higher than the ambient water temperature.
A thermal plume from a cooling station
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Airborne Radar
Sensor emits microwaves and then receives microwaves that are returned to the sensor
Hence can image through fog!And darkness
Brazilian rain forest
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Continued military• Higher resolution• Flights by the U-2 an ‘untouchable’ aircraft for four
years until 1960 when it was shot down (very embarrassing for the US).
• Space as the answer!• Corona as the first operational space photo
reconnaissance satellite (1960 – 1972)
Corona image of the Pentagon
Corona as secret until 1992
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U-2 with Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR)
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Information from the U-2 program
• Photo of a Soviet missile site in Cuba
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Sputnik
• Oct 1957 - First satellite put into orbit around Earth! (lasted 3 months)
• USSR
• Fear – response was the ‘Space Race’
• http://www.sputnikmania.com/
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Space as the answer!
Corona image of the Pentagon
Corona as secret until 1992
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Corona satellite film recovery sequence
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Non-military space imaging
• Weather satellite: TIROS-1
Before this the only information was from the ground and weather ships
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Earth remote sensing an offshoot of moon exploration
1968 Apollo 8 lunar orbit
1969: Apollo 11 lunar landing
Interest in space coincided with growing concern about Earth
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Satellites and earth observation 1972 - 1986
• Landsat 1972 and onwards
• Growing concern about human impact
• NASA program
First Landsat images
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Landsat images of the Philippines
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Thematic Mapper• Instrument on some of the later
Landsat satellites• Bands (segments of the spectrum) are
combined• These are known as multispectral
images • Called a thematic mapper because the
data can be used to map specific things like vegetation types, minerals
• Earlier version of the instrument was known as a multispectral scanner (MSS)
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Advanced Very High resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)
• Another major earth observation program (initially intended for atmospheric information)
• NOAA 1.1 km resolution imagery• Visible and near IR
Vegetation using the near IR bands
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Total Ozone Mapping Spectometer (TOMS)
Measurement of the ozone hole over the Antarctic (observations started in 1978?)
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Radarsat• Canada/USA satellite for earth observation, launched in 1995• With time countries other than the US have become involved in
remote sensing, Canada, Europe, Japan, Brazil etc
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Photographs vs digital images• Photographs: Light falling on a sensitive surface
(film)• Digital images: pixels, each of which has a
numerical value• Image processing initially lagged behind
acquisition• Digital images are replacing photographs• Why
– Amount of information
– Computer analysis
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Digital images
• Like mosaics• Resolution in part a function of pixel (picture
element) size• Each pixel can have a value from 0 - 254
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Orthophotos (a type of photo)Used for watershed and other land use planning, many uses
Photographs have been geometrically corrected ("orthorectified") so the scale of the photograph is uniform
Hence the photo can be considered equivalent to a map
Ortho images are often mosaics of orthophotos
These can be readily used in GIS
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Beyond NASA and NOAA: Commercial programs
• IKONOS in 1999 (Space Imaging Inc/USA) – One-meter resolution– Multispectral and panchromatic (like b/w film)
• EROS A1 in 2000 (ImageSat/Israel&USA)
• Rapidly followed by others … increasing spatial resolution
• List: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Earth_observation_satellites
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Remote Sensing and GIS
• Complementary technologies– Talk to Ron Raty if you are interested in GIS
• Remotely sensed data are used in GIS systems in planning and also for Earth Science research
• This course focuses on remote sensing and what we can learn about Earth from various types of imagery.
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Complementary nature
• Remotely sensed data: rich source of data• GIS powerful tool for analysis and display• “Integrating these technologies has been a
challenge” • Only in late 1990s was it possible for GIS
systems to ingest larger raster images• Geomatics: new field that includes surveying,
use of GIS, GPS, remote sensing, cartography (term coined in about 1970)
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Global Positioning System (GPS)
Two part system:
• Satellites orbiting earth
• Handheld receivers
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GPS
• Developed by the United States Department of Defense
• Officially called NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System).
• Provided for free to the public.
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GPS
The Global Positioning System is based on a "constellation" of satellites that emit timed signals. Developed as a navigation (and weapons guidance) aid, GPS is now used as a very precise surveying tool. Under good conditions (and repeated fixes over several days), sites can be located within 2 cm.
(http://earth.leeds.ac.uk/dynamicearth/plates_move/active_tectonics/gps.ht)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wi_3XwkA8cQ&feature=related
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Remote sensing makes use of different wavelengths
Microwaves are about 1mm - 1m long.Radio waves are about a meter to 1000 meters long.